DAILY CURRENT AFFAIRS IAS | UPSC Prelims and Mains Exam – 4th April 2026

Subject: Land Reforms; Digital Governance; Unique Land Parcel Identification Number (ULPIN); Centre-State Schemes

News Context:
Telangana has become the first state in India to make the inclusion of land maps in passbooks mandatory upon completion of land transactions. 

The move aims to prevent “Vivat Kabja” (mismatch between passbook holding and actual possession), eliminate double registration, and assign a Unique Land Parcel Identification Number (ULPIN), locally called Bhudhaar.

Key Details & Important Facts:

• Legislative Basis: Telangana Bhu Bharati (Record of Rights in Land) Act, 2025
• Key Provisions (Sections 5, 7, 8, 10): Mandatory submission of survey/sub-division map along with mutation, inheritance, and other transaction applications.
• Unique Feature: Maps incorporated directly into passbooks – first such initiative in India.
• Unique ID: Bhudhaar (local name) / ULPIN (Central Government term – Unique Land Parcel Identification Number).
• Objective:
  • Prevent “Vivat Kabja” (possession vs. record mismatch)
  • Eliminate double registration of land parcels
  • Enable landowners to check boundaries online via Revenue department website
• Model Adopted: Karnataka model (successful implementation of map incorporation before registration).
• Additional Benefit: Facilitates incremental survey of agricultural lands in villages – overcomes the impediment of completing full resurvey under the Record of Rights Act, 1948.

Core Theme:
The core theme is the digital transformation of land records through mandatory map integration. By linking every transaction to a geo-referenced map and a unique ID (ULPIN/Bhudhaar), Telangana aims to eliminate land disputes, fraudulent registrations, and possession mismatches. 

The “incremental survey” feature ensures that resurvey happens organically with each transaction, avoiding the need for a costly, time-bound statewide resurvey.

UPSC-Oriented Analysis (Static-Dynamic Linkage):

• Static Link: Connects to the Digital India Land Records Modernization Programme (DILRMP) – a central scheme launched in 2008 to digitize land records, create unique IDs (ULPIN), and integrate maps. Also links to Registration Act, 1908 and Transfer of Property Act, 1882.
• Dynamic Link: Telangana’s initiative is a state-led innovation that aligns with the Centre’s push for ULPIN (announced in Budget 2021-22 as “Unique Land Parcel Identification Number” for digitization). The “Karnataka model” reference indicates cross-state learning in land governance. The incremental survey approach addresses a key bottleneck in land reforms – the high cost and time required for full resurvey (as seen in the Svamitva Scheme for rural properties using drones).

Source/Reference:

https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/telangana/telangana-sets-in-motion-a-major-reform-by-operationalising-bhu-bharati-portal-in-five-mandals/article70819216.ece

Subject: Defence Technology; Indigenous Shipbuilding; Maritime Security; Coastal Security

News Context:
INS Taragiri, the fourth ship of the Project 17A (Nilgiri-class) stealth frigates, was commissioned into the Indian Navy on April 3, 2026, at Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh, by Raksha Mantri Shri Rajnath Singh. 

The warship has been designed by the Warship Design Bureau and built by Mazagon Dock Shipbuilders Limited (MDL), with over 75% indigenous content and support from 200+ MSMEs. The commissioning comes at a time when India is actively securing critical sea lanes, choke points, and undersea digital infrastructure.

Key Details & Important Facts:

• Vessel Name: INS Taragiri (meaning: “Arrow of the Sea” / Mountain peak in Kumaon)
• Class: Project 17A (Nilgiri-class) – fourth of seven frigates
• Displacement: Approximately 6,670 tonnes
• Designer: Warship Design Bureau (Indian Navy)
• Builder: Mazagon Dock Shipbuilders Limited (MDL), Mumbai
• Commissioning Location: Visakhapatnam (Eastern Naval Command)
• Indigenous Content: >75% (highest among P17A ships)
• Propulsion: Combined Diesel or Gas (CODOG) + Integrated Platform Management System
• Key Weapon Systems:
  • BrahMos supersonic surface-to-surface missiles
  • Medium Range Surface-to-Air Missiles (MR-SAM)
  • Indigenous Anti-Submarine Warfare (ASW) suite
• Stealth Features: Reduced Radar Cross-Section (RCS) – modular, sleek design
• Fleet Assignment: Eastern Fleet (Eastern Seaboard)
• Predecessor: Leander-class frigate (commissioned 1980) – same name
• Strategic Context: Aligned with MAHASAGAR (Maritime vision – Maritime-Harbours-Alliance-Security-Action-Growth-Anticipation-Regional) and India’s Indo-Pacific posture

Relevant Keywords for Prelims:

• Project: Project 17A (Nilgiri-class – 7 frigates: Nilgiri, Udaygiri, Taragiri, Mahendragiri, Himgiri, Dunagiri, Vindhyagiri)
• Missiles: BrahMos (supersonic cruise missile – India-Russia JV), MR-SAM (jointly developed with Israel)
• Concepts: Stealth Technology, Radar Cross-Section (RCS), CODOG propulsion, Integrated Platform Management System (IPMS)
• Vision: Aatmanirbhar Bharat, MAHASAGAR (India’s maritime vision), Indo-Pacific

Core Theme:
The core theme is India’s growing self-reliance in naval shipbuilding and its strategic maritime posture. INS Taragiri exemplifies the shift from “buyer” to “builder” of complex warships, with over 75% indigenous content. 

The commissioning reinforces India’s capability to secure its 11,000 km coastline, 95% trade by sea, energy security routes, critical choke points (Malacca, Hormuz, Bab-el-Mandeb), and undersea internet cables – establishing India as a responsible maritime power under the MAHASAGAR vision.

UPSC-Oriented Analysis (Static-Dynamic Linkage):

• Static Link: Connects to Maritime Security as part of National Security (coastal defence, anti-piracy, humanitarian assistance). Also links to Defence Acquisition Procedure (DAP) – indigenous design and manufacturing under Strategic Partnership (SP) Model.
• Dynamic Link: INS Taragiri is a flagship outcome of Aatmanirbhar Bharat in Defence. The >75% indigenous content aligns with the Positive Indigenisation List (PIL) and the target of ₹1.75 lakh crore defence production by 2025. The mention of defence exports reaching ₹38,424 crore in FY 2025-26 (up from ₹1,200 crore ~13 years ago) is a key economic indicator. The focus on undersea internet cables reflects the convergence of maritime security and cyber security.

Source/Reference:

https://www.pib.gov.in/allRel.aspx?reg=3&lang=1

Subject: Mauryan Empire (Successors); Jainism (Spread & Propagation); Religious Traditions

News Context:
On Mahavir Jayanti (March 31, 2026), Prime Minister Narendra Modi inaugurated the Samrat Samprati Museum in Koba, Gandhinagar (Gujarat). 

The museum is dedicated to Jain history and the life of Samrat Samprati, the grandson of the Mauryan ruler Ashoka. While Ashoka is renowned for spreading Buddhism, Samprati is remembered for his deep association with and propagation of Jainism across the subcontinent and beyond.

Key Details & Important Facts:

• Samrat Samprati: Grandson of Ashoka (son of Kunala); believed to have reigned c. 230–220 BCE
• Succession: After Ashoka’s death (232 BCE), empire divided between his grandsons – Dasharatha (east) and Samprati (west)
• Religious Affiliation: Shvetambara Jain tradition considers Samprati the central Mauryan figure (while Digambaras venerate Chandragupta Maurya)
• Conversion: Converted under monk Suhastin (8th leader of Jain congregation established by Mahavira) in Ujjain
• Key Contributions (as per Jain texts):
  • Facilitated movement of monks to distant regions
  • Built 125,000 new temples; renovated 36,000 old ones
  • Consecrated 12.5 million stone icons and 95,000 metal icons
  • Established 700 charitable centers for the poor
• Regions of Jain Propagation:
  • Within India: Andhra, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Saurashtra, Gujarat, Malva, Rajputana
  • Beyond India: China, Burma (Myanmar), Afghanistan, Nepal, Bhutan; some accounts claim Central Asia, Arabian peninsula, West Asia
• Historical Comparison: Samprati is to Jainism what Ashoka is to Buddhism – spread teachings, built temples/icons, and established ritual culture

Relevant Keywords for Prelims:

• Rulers: Samrat Samprati, Ashoka, Chandragupta Maurya, Dasharatha, Kunala
• Jain Sects: Shvetambara (primary source of Samprati narratives), Digambara (venerate Chandragupta)
• Monk: Suhastin (8th Jain patriarch)
• Locations: Koba, Gandhinagar (museum); Ujjain (conversion site); Shravana Belgola (Chandragupta’s death site – Digambara tradition)
• Festival: Mahavir Jayanti (birth anniversary of Lord Mahavira, 24th Tirthankara)

Core Theme:
The core theme is the role of Mauryan rulers beyond Ashoka in propagating Indian religious traditions. While Ashoka’s Buddhist missionary activities are widely known, Samprati’s equally significant contributions to Jainism – including temple construction, icon installation, and monastic missions across India and into Central/Southeast Asia – represent the Jain counterpart to Ashoka’s Buddhist legacy. The new museum at Gandhinagar brings this lesser-known historical figure into public memory.

UPSC-Oriented Analysis (Static-Dynamic Linkage):

• Static Link: Connects to Mauryan Empire (c. 322–185 BCE) – its decline after Ashoka, the succession crisis, and the division of the empire. Also links to Jainism – its two main sects (Digambara and Shvetambara), the Tirthankara tradition (Mahavira as 24th Tirthankara), and the concept of Jain monastic orders (ganas).
• Dynamic Link: The inauguration of the museum on Mahavir Jayanti reflects the government’s emphasis on highlighting India’s ancient religious heritage and lesser-known historical figures. It also aligns with the promotion of Jain pilgrimage and cultural tourism (e.g., recent development of Jain temples under PRASHAD scheme).

Source/Reference:

https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/explained-history/samrat-samprati-ashoka-grandson-jainism-history-10613510/

Subject: Black Money; Tax Evasion; Offshore Financial Centres; Anti-Money Laundering; Government Policies

News Context:
A decade after the Panama Papers (April 4, 2016) exposed global offshore finance, India’s tax enforcement has resulted in ₹41,257 crore in tax and penalty demands under the Black Money Act, 2015. 

However, actual recovery remains critically low at ₹338 crore (less than 1%) as of March 2025, highlighting significant enforcement gaps. Investigations into the Panama, Paradise, and Pandora Papers alone identified ₹14,636 crore in undisclosed offshore assets.

Key Details & Important Facts:

Legislative Framework:

• Black Money (Undisclosed Foreign Income and Assets) and Imposition of Tax Act, 2015 – Enacted July 1, 2015 specifically to target offshore black money 
• Benami Transactions (Prohibition) Amendment Act, 2016 – Enables confiscation of benami property 
• Fugitive Economic Offenders Act, 2018 – Targets economic offenders fleeing India 
• Special Investigation Team (SIT) on Black Money – Constituted May 2014 under former Supreme Court judges 

Enforcement Numbers (as of March 31, 2025):

Source: Ministry of Finance, Rajya Sabha reply (July 2025) 

Global Investigations Impact (Updated till December 2025):

Source: CBDT RTI reply (Jan 30, 2026) 

Key Enforcement Initiatives:

1. NUDGE Campaign (Nov 2024 & Nov 2025):

• Leveraged Automatic Exchange of Information (AEOI) data
• Targeted communications to taxpayers with foreign assets
• One phase: 1.57 lakh taxpayers revised returns, declaring ₹99,882 crore foreign assets and ₹6,540 crore foreign income 

2. International Cooperation:

• AEOI under Common Reporting Standard (CRS) – data from 100+ jurisdictions 
• Switzerland sharing Indian resident data since 2018 (first exchange Sept 2019) 
• FATCA agreement with USA (2015) 
• Multilateral Convention on Mutual Administrative Assistance in Tax Matters 

3. Domestic Enforcement:

• Search & Seizure (2024-25): 1,437 groups searched, assets seized ₹2,503.73 crore 
• Surveys (2024-25): 465 surveys, undisclosed income detected ₹30,444 crore 
• GAAR (General Anti-Avoidance Rules) implemented 2017 

Relevant Keywords for Prelims:

• Acts: Black Money Act, 2015; Benami Transactions Act (1988, amended 2016); Fugitive Economic Offenders Act, 2018; PMLA, 2002
• Institutions: CBDT, SIT (Special Investigation Team), ED, ICIJ, MAG (Multi-Agency Group)
• Reports/Leaks: Panama Papers (2016), Paradise Papers (2017), Pandora Papers (2021) – Mossack Fonseca, Appleby
• International Frameworks: AEOI, CRS, FATCA, BEPS, MLI, CbCR, GAAR
• Schemes: NUDGE Campaign, Vivad Se Vishwas Scheme

Core Theme:
The core theme is the implementation gap between legislative intent and actual recovery in India’s fight against black money. While the Black Money Act, 2015, international information-sharing (AEOI), and targeted campaigns like NUDGE have identified massive undisclosed wealth (₹35,000+ crore demands), actual recovery remains abysmally low (under 1%) due to prolonged litigation, appeal processes, and jurisdictional challenges in repatriating foreign assets.

UPSC-Oriented Analysis (Static-Dynamic Linkage):

Static Link:

• Article 265: No tax shall be levied or collected except by authority of law
• Article 246 read with Seventh Schedule: Union List Entry 82 – taxes on income other than agricultural income; Entry 31 – foreign affairs (including foreign contributions)
• Income Tax Act, 1961 – Sections 139(1) and 139(8) – mandatory disclosure of foreign assets
• Prevention of Money Laundering Act (PMLA), 2002 – Section 51 of Black Money Act is a scheduled offence under PMLA Part-C 

Dynamic Link:

• The Panama Papers investigation triggered global political upheavals (toppling governments in Iceland and Pakistan) 
• India’s Multi-Agency Group (MAG) mechanism represents a coordinated response across ED, CBDT, RBI, and IB
• The NUDGE campaign demonstrates a shift from coercive to voluntary compliance using data analytics – aligned with Digital India and taxpayer-friendly governance
• The AEOI framework under OECD’s CRS represents a global shift away from banking secrecy – Switzerland sharing data since 2018 is a landmark shift
• Low recovery rates highlight the need for specialised tax courts and faster dispute resolution under Vivad Se Vishwas 

Source/Reference:

http://indianexpress.com/article/express-exclusive/panama-papers-black-money-act-tax-recovery-10-years-10617762/

Subject: Contract Law (Indian Contract Act, 1872); Infrastructure Development; PPP Models; Risk Allocation; Disaster Management

News Context:
The ongoing West Asia conflict (March-April 2026), involving blockade of the Strait of Hormuz, has disrupted global supply chains, causing steel prices to rise by 20% and LPG cylinders from Rs 2,000 to Rs 7,000. 

Contractors on major Mumbai infrastructure projects—Sewri-Worli Connector, Metro Line 6, and the Thane depot for Mumbai-Ahmedabad Bullet Train—have invoked force majeure, warning of cost escalations and deadline slippages. This marks a return to pandemic-style disruption, testing the resilience of India’s infrastructure contracting ecosystem.

Key Details & Important Facts:

What is Force Majeure?

• A contractual clause that excuses a party from performing its obligations when an unforeseeable, uncontrollable event (natural calamity, war, pandemic, government action) prevents performance.
• Key distinction from Frustration (Section 56, Indian Contract Act, 1872):
  • Force Majeure (contractual): Temporarily suspends obligations; grants extension of time or limited compensation; contract continues.
  • Frustration (statutory): Permanently terminates the contract when performance becomes impossible.

Legal Framework & Judicial Principles:

• Section 56 of Indian Contract Act, 1872: Recognizes frustration of contract where performance becomes impossible after formation.
• Supreme Court in Energy Watchdog v. CERC (2017): When a contract contains a force majeure clause, relief must be sought under that clause, not under Section 56.
• Delhi High Court in NTPC v. Precision Technik (July 2025): Key rulings on force majeure in infrastructure :
  1. Use of “means” vs. “includes”: “Means” indicates an exhaustive list; events not listed cannot be claimed as force majeure. “Includes” keeps the clause open-ended.
  2. Bureaucratic delays are NOT force majeure: Administrative delays are foreseeable in India; contractors must anticipate and plan for them.
  3. Notice is a condition precedent: Failure to give timely notice (within contractually stipulated period) defeats the force majeure claim.
  4. Mitigation obligation: Affected party must demonstrate genuine efforts to mitigate delays.
• Supreme Court in CESC v. Saisudhir Energy (August 2025): Regulatory commissions (KERC, APTEL) cannot rewrite contractual terms under the guise of equity. Delay by another government entity does not automatically constitute force majeure unless the contract explicitly provides for it.

Evolution of Force Majeure Clauses (Post-Covid):

Contemporary Challenge: West Asia Conflict (March-April 2026)

• Trigger: Blockade of Strait of Hormuz → diversion via Cape of Good Hope (6,000-10,000 extra nautical miles; 20 extra days; Rs 1.5-3.5 lakh per container).
• Impact on Indian Infrastructure:
  • Steel costs: +20%
  • LPG (used in cutting, welding, fabrication): Rs 2,000 → Rs 7,000 per cylinder
  • Cascading hikes: Aluminium, bitumen, tiles, ceramics, cement
  • High-rise construction: Additional burden of Rs 50 per sq. ft. 
• Safety net: Price Variation Clause (based on WPI or sector-specific indices) – contractors can claim additional costs without separate force majeure invocation.

Kelkar Committee (2015) on Risk Allocation:

• Diagnosed excessive risk on private concessionaires (land acquisition delays, regulatory approvals, etc.)
• Recommended equitable risk distribution between private parties and government authorities.

Relevant Keywords for Prelims:

• Legal: Section 56, Indian Contract Act, 1872 (frustration); Force Majeure; Mitigation; Condition Precedent; Liquidated Damages; Performance Bank Guarantee (PBG)
• Institutions: Kelkar Committee (2015); NITI Aayog (Model Contracts); FIDIC (International construction contracts); MNRE; MMRDA; NHSRCL
• Case Laws: Energy Watchdog v. CERC (2017); NTPC v. Precision Technik (2025); CESC v. Saisudhir Energy (2025); Halliburton v. Vedanta (2020)
• Concepts: Price Variation Clause; Scheduled Commercial Operations Date (SCOD); Strait of Hormuz; Cape of Good Hope; Great Indian Bustard (GIB)
• Locations: Sewri-Worli Connector, Metro Line 6, Thane (Bullet Train depot) – Mumbai; Gujarat (RE projects)

Core Theme:
The core theme is the evolution of force majeure as a risk allocation tool in Indian infrastructure contracts—from a vague “Act of God” clause to a precisely drafted mechanism covering pandemics, geopolitical conflicts, and supply chain disruptions. The recent West Asia war has triggered force majeure invocations across Mumbai’s mega-projects, highlighting India’s vulnerability to distant global shocks. Judicial precedents consistently emphasize contractual primacy, strict interpretation, timely notice, and mitigation obligations, while rejecting bureaucratic delays as force majeure.

UPSC-Oriented Analysis (Static-Dynamic Linkage):

Static Link:

• Indian Contract Act, 1872, Section 56: Doctrine of frustration – supervening impossibility.
• Specific Relief Act, 1963: Section 10 – specific performance of contracts; Section 14 – contracts not specifically enforceable (those involving personal skill or determinable nature).
• Constitutional basis: Article 299 – contracts by the Union/States; Article 300 – suits by/against government.
• Planning Commission/NITI Aayog Model EPC Contracts: Standard force majeure provisions for government procurement.

Dynamic Link:

• Covid-19 pandemic (2020-21): Catalyst for rewriting force majeure clauses; Ministry of Finance OM (Feb 2020) recognized pandemic as force majeure.
• West Asia conflict (2026): First major post-Covid test; blockade of Strait of Hormuz impacts LPG and steel supply chains.
• GIB case (2026): First instance of environmental litigation (endangered species) being treated as force majeure-like event – significant for renewable energy sector.
• International alignment: India increasingly adopting FIDIC standards (Red/Yellow/Silver Books) for complex EPC projects.

Source/Reference:

https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/mumbai/force-majeure-on-mumbai-skyline-how-a-distant-war-in-west-asia-is-stalling-citys-big-public-infrastructure-push-10618033/

UPSC Mains Subject: GS Paper II – Polity & Governance (Statutory Bodies) | GS Paper IV – Ethics
Sub-topic: Foreign Contribution Regulation Act (FCRA); Civil Society; Natural Justice; Transparency

Introduction

The 2026 FCRA (Foreign Contribution (Regulation) Act) amendments empower a designated authority to seize and dispose of assets of NGOs upon cancellation of registration, without judicial oversight or due process. By combining licensing, cancellation, and asset control in one authority, it raises serious concerns over natural justice, transparency, and potential arbitrariness in enforcement.

Main Body

Background: FCRA Evolution & Progressive Tightening

Context: State policy actively seeks foreign money in infrastructure, technology, entertainment, and real estate—yet civil society faces progressively tighter restrictions.

Key Provisions of the 2026 Amendment Bill

Procedural & Principled Unfairness

MP John Brittas’s Experience: His questions regarding FCRA cancellations, non-renewals, and related data have been disallowed since 2024—leaving a reasonable assumption that the government allows only some to receive foreign funds.

Stakeholders Most Affected

Contrast with State Policy on Foreign Money

Inconsistency: Regulatory regimes can be credible only when transparent and even-handed. FCRA restrictions fail this test.

Way Forward: Principles for Fair FCRA Regulation

Critical Analysis: Strengths & Gaps

Conclusion

The proposed FCRA amendments represent a dangerous departure from natural justice and procedural fairness. By empowering a designated authority to seize assets—schools, hospitals, places of worship—automatically upon withdrawal of registration, without any judicial process, the government becomes both judge and beneficiary. When parliamentary questions on cancellations are disallowed and data remains opaque, the reasonable assumption is selective favouritism. 

The Centre must rethink this approach. Any regulation on foreign funds must be fair, transparent, even-handed, and grounded in due process. Civil society assets built legally should not be subject to executive seizure without judicial determination. Trust, once broken, is not easily restored.

UPSC Mains Practice Question

1. “The proposed FCRA amendments violate natural justice principles by empowering the government to seize assets without judicial determination.” Critically examine the provisions of the 2026 FCRA Amendment Bill. How do they undermine transparency, due process, and the credibility of India’s regulatory framework for foreign contributions? (250 words, 15 marks)

https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/editorial/fear-of-the-foreign-on-the-fcra-amendments/article70820494.ece

UPSC Mains Subject: GS Paper III – Disaster Management | GS Paper II – Governance
Sub-topic: Crowd Management; Disaster Preparedness; Public Safety; Police Reforms

Introduction

Another stampede, another probe—India seems to have learned little about crowd management despite repeated tragedies. At the Sheetla Mata temple in Bihar’s Nalanda district, nine persons died (eight women) and a dozen were injured when over 10,000 devotees gathered—against a typical few hundred. 

Priests allegedly took bribes for special darshan through exits, which became clogged. Police claimed no forewarning, though bandobust for the Nalanda University convocation (attended by the President) may have diverted resources. What happened was clearly avoidable, as are all stampedes that routinely occur in India. The tragedy underscores the urgent need to professionalize crowd management—treating it as a scientific discipline rather than on-field experiential learning.

Main Body

The Nalanda Tragedy: What Went Wrong

Result: Nine dead (eight women); dozen injured.

Recent Precedent: RCB Victory Celebration (Bengaluru, June 2025)

Pattern: India has witnessed a series of stampedes in recent months—yet no systemic learning.

Crowd Science: Established Knowledge, Poor Application

Two Bodies of Literature:

• Planned gatherings (sports events, festivals)
• Unplanned spontaneous gatherings (celebrity sightings, religious surges)—typical in India, driven by digital communities

Current Indian Practice: On-Field Learning, Not Professional Training

Consequence: Each generation of police personnel learns same lessons through tragedy.

Way Forward: Professionalizing Crowd Management

Critical Analysis: Strengths & Gaps

Conclusion

The Nalanda stampede was not an act of god—it was a failure of planning, intelligence, and professional crowd management. Police claimed no forewarning for a predictable religious occasion. Priests took bribes, clogging exits. A single fall triggered panic. 

India has witnessed a series of such tragedies, yet each is followed by another probe and no systemic change. The lesson is clear: crowd management must move from on-field experiential learning to a professional academic discipline—taught to organisers and police personnel alike. 

With scientific density standards, qualitative communication tools, real-time monitoring, and accountability for corruption, these tragedies are entirely preventable. India need not learn this lesson again.

UPSC Mains Practice Question

1. “Another stampede, another probe—India seems to have learned little about crowd management despite repeated tragedies.” Critically examine the systemic failures in crowd management in India, using the Nalanda stampede as a case study. Suggest a framework to professionalize crowd management as a disaster preparedness discipline. (250 words, 15 marks)

https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/editorial/lessons-unlearned-on-the-stampede-in-nalanda-bihar/article70819697.ece