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(PRELIMS Focus)
Subject: Science & Tech – Parasitology; Agriculture – Livestock Health; Rumen Fluke; Amphistome; Paramphistomosis; Odisha.
Why in News?
- Around 70 cattle have died in Odisha’s Kendrapada district recently.
- The Chief District Veterinary Officer attributed most of the deaths to amphistomes, or rumen flukes disease, locally known as ‘Kurmi’.
What is Rumen Fluke?
Definition
- Parasites of ruminants (cattle, sheep, goats, buffalo) occurring worldwide.
- Disease caused is called paramphistomosis.
Scientific Name
- Belongs to the family Paramphistomidae (various genera).
Intermediate Host
- Snails act as the intermediate host.
Location in Host
- Adult parasites live in the rumen (first stomach chamber of ruminants).
- Immature larval forms live in the small intestine.
Cause of Disease
- Disease is due to intestinal damage caused by massive numbers of larvae in the intestine (not the adults).
Transmission
How Animals Get Infected
- Through ingestion of contaminated water or vegetation carrying larval stages (metacercariae) shed by infected snails.
Life Cycle (Simplified)
- Adult flukes in rumen produce eggs → eggs pass in faeces → eggs hatch in water → larvae infect snails → develop in snails → larvae released from snails onto vegetation → cattle eat vegetation → infection established.
Symptoms (Key Signs)
- Severe diarrhoea (watery, foul-smelling)
- Rapid weight loss (despite the animal’s willingness to eat)
- Swelling under the jaw – known as “bottle jaw” (submandibular oedema)
- Reduced milk yield (and milk curdling)
- Significant loss in body mass
- Anaemia, weakness, dehydration (secondary symptoms)
Treatment and Management
Treatment
- Anthelmintic medicines – targeted drugs to eradicate parasitic worms (helminthes).
- Common anthelmintics used: Closantel, Oxyclozanide, Niclosamide, etc. (veterinary use).
Key Terms for Prelims
- Rumen Fluke: Parasite of ruminants; also called amphistome; causes paramphistomosis
- Rumen: First chamber of the stomach in ruminants (cattle, sheep, goats, buffalo)
- Paramphistomosis: Disease caused by rumen flukes (amphistomes)
- Intermediate Host: Snail (where larval development occurs)
- Definitive Host: Ruminants (cattle, buffalo, sheep, goats)
- Bottle Jaw: Swelling under the jaw (submandibular oedema) – a classic sign of rumen fluke disease
- Anthelmintic: Medication used to eradicate parasitic worms (helminthes)
- Metacercariae: Encysted larval stage of flukes on vegetation (infective to ruminants)
- Molluscicide: Chemical used to control snails (intermediate host)
- Kurmi: Local name for rumen fluke disease in Odisha
Possible Prelims MCQs
Q1: Rumen flukes are parasites that primarily infect:
- Ruminants
Q2: Which organism acts as the intermediate host for rumen flukes?
- Snail
Q3: What is the classical sign of rumen fluke disease (submandibular oedema) commonly called?
- Bottle jaw
Q4: Which class of medicines is used to treat rumen fluke infection?
- Anthelmintics
Q5: The disease caused by rumen flukes is known as:
- Paramphistomosis
Q6: What is the local name for rumen fluke disease in Odisha?
- Kurmi
Source/Reference:
Subject: Geography – Mineral Resources; Science & Tech – Sulfide Minerals; Environment – Acid Rain; Coal Quality; Gujarat.
Why in News?
- Geologists have discovered a rare, microscopic sunflower-shaped pyrite (fool’s gold) within the lignite coal reserves of Gujarat (Matanomadh and Umarsar mines in western Kachchh).
- This is the first report of this unusual mineral structure in India.
- The discovery was made by researchers from Banaras Hindu University (BHU) and IIT (ISM) Dhanbad.
What is Pyrite?
Definition
- Naturally occurring iron disulfide mineral.
- Chemical formula: FeS₂ (most common sulfide mineral).
Appearance
- Brass-yellow mineral with a bright metallic luster.
- Called “fool’s gold” because its colour is deceptively similar to gold nuggets.
Etymology
- From Greek word “pyr” meaning “fire” – because pyrite emits sparks when struck by metal.
Historical Use
- Nodules found in prehistoric burial mounds – suggests use as a means of producing fire.
Rare Sunflower-Structured Pyrite
What is it?
- A rare microscopic pyrite formation resembling a sunflower.
- Features a core of clustered micro-crystals surrounded by an outer ring of larger, flat crystals – resembling seeds and bright petals of a sunflower.
How it Forms
- Most pyrite is framboidal (tiny, tightly packed raspberry-like clusters).
- Sunflower structure represents a rare transitional phase:
- In oxygen-starved marshy coastal environments, sulfate-reducing bacteria broke down organic matter, releasing hydrogen sulfide.
- Hydrogen sulfide reacted with iron to form tight, spherical clusters of framboid pyrite microcrystals.
- When bacterial activity slowed, a slower process called recrystallisation began.
- Larger, flat, geometric crystals grew around the outer rim, creating sunflower petals.
Significance (Understanding Ancient Environment)
- Millions of years ago, the region was an oxygen-starved, marshy coastal environment heavily influenced by the sea.
Key Terms for Prelims
- Pyrite: Iron disulfide (FeS₂); most common sulfide mineral; called fool’s gold
- Framboidal Pyrite: Tiny, tightly packed raspberry-like clusters (common form)
- Sunflower Pyrite: Rare microscopic formation with core of micro-crystals surrounded by larger flat crystals (first report in India – Gujarat)
- Recrystallisation: Process where larger, flat, geometric crystals grow around an existing framboid core
- Lignite: Brown coal; low-grade coal (Gujarat reserves)
- Sulfate-reducing bacteria: Bacteria that break down organic matter releasing hydrogen sulfide in oxygen-poor environments
- Sulfur dioxide (SO₂): Gas released from burning sulfur-rich coal; primary cause of acid rain
- Spontaneous combustion: Self-ignition of coal due to pyrite’s catalytic reaction with oxygen
- Beneficiation: Process of cleaning/upgrading coal by removing impurities
- Gossan: Rusty oxidized zone at surface indicating underlying pyrite
- Iron sulfate: Compound derived from pyrite; used to treat iron-deficiency anaemia
- Acid rain: Rain with elevated pH due to SO₂ emissions; damages ecosystems and infrastructure
Possible Prelims MCQs
Q1: Pyrite is commonly known as:
- Fool’s gold
Q2: What is the chemical formula of pyrite?
- FeS₂
Q3: Which institutes collaborated on the discovery of sunflower-structured pyrite?
- Banaras Hindu University (BHU) and IIT (ISM) Dhanbad
Q4: The process where larger, flat, geometric crystals grow around an existing framboid pyrite core is called:
- Recrystallisation
Q5: Which gas released from burning sulfur-rich coal is the primary cause of acid rain?
- Sulfur dioxide (SO₂)
Q6: The Greek word “pyr” from which pyrite derives its name means:
- Fire
Q7: Which countries are currently the world’s largest producers of pyrite?
- Italy and China
Source/Reference:
Subject: Defence – Indigenous Missile Technology; DRDO; UAV-Launched Precision Guided Missile; Drone Warfare; Atmanirbhar Bharat.
Why in News?
- The Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) successfully completed the final development trials of the UAV-Launched Precision Guided Missile (ULPGM)-V3.
- Trials were conducted in both air-to-ground and air-to-air modes.
- The missile is in “deliverable configuration” – signalling near-readiness for induction into the armed forces.
Evolution of ULPGM (V1 to V3)
- V1: Basic free-fall precision missile
- V2: Added propulsion, longer range, and mid-course target updates
- V3: Air-to-ground AND air-to-air capability; advanced seekers; multiple warheads; day-night combat
Significance of V3: Generational leap – from basic drone-launched weapon to highly versatile, multi-role precision missile suited for modern drone warfare.
Key Technical Features
Guidance and Control
- High-definition dual-channel seeker – advanced guidance system using multiple sensors to accurately track both ground and aerial targets.
- Two-way data link – enables operators to change or update target even after missile launch (critical in fast-moving combat environments).
Operational Capabilities
- Engages both stationary and moving targets with precision.
- All-weather, day-and-night capability.
- Deployable in both plains and high-altitude regions (suitable for Himalayan frontier).
Target Types
- Tanks, armoured vehicles, bunkers, fortified structures, drones, helicopters, and other airborne threats.
Three Warhead Options
| Warhead Type | Purpose |
|---|---|
| Anti-Armour Warhead | Destroy heavily protected tanks and armoured vehicles (including RHA and ERA – Rolled Homogeneous Armour and Explosive Reactive Armour) |
| Penetration-cum-Blast Warhead | Pierce and destroy bunkers and fortified structures (critical for counter-insurgency and conventional warfare) |
| Pre-Fragmentation Warhead | Disperses high-speed metal fragments over large area to maximise damage (effective against personnel and light vehicles) |
Production and Development Ecosystem
Indigenous Development (Aatmanirbhar Bharat)
- Entirely developed and produced within India’s defence ecosystem.
Nodal Development Lab
- Research Centre Imarat (RCI), Hyderabad
UAV Integration
- Currently integrated on UAVs developed by Newspace Research and Technologies, Bengaluru.
- DRDO actively pursuing integration with long-range, high-endurance UAVs from other Indian companies.
Key Terms for Prelims
- ULPGM-V3: UAV-Launched Precision Guided Missile (V3 – third generation)
- DRDO: Defence Research and Development Organisation (India’s premier defence R&D agency)
- RCI (Research Centre Imarat): Hyderabad-based DRDO laboratory; nodal lab for ULPGM-V3
- Dual-channel seeker: Guidance system using multiple sensors to track ground and aerial targets
- Two-way data link: Enables post-launch target updates
- RHA (Rolled Homogeneous Armour): Standard steel armour used on tanks
- ERA (Explosive Reactive Armour): Special protection layer on modern battle tanks that explodes outward to disrupt incoming projectiles
- Newspace Research and Technologies: Bengaluru-based company; UAV integrator for ULPGM-V3
- Aatmanirbhar Bharat: India’s self-reliance initiative (defence sector is a key focus)
- Network-centric warfare: Military doctrine using networked sensors and weapons for real-time coordinated action
- Air-to-ground mode: Missile launched from UAV to strike ground targets
- Air-to-air mode: Missile launched from UAV to engage aerial targets (drones, helicopters)
Possible Prelims MCQs
Q1: ULPGM-V3 is a drone-launched precision guided missile developed by which organisation?
- DRDO
Q2: Which DRDO laboratory served as the nodal development lab for ULPGM-V3?
- Research Centre Imarat (RCI), Hyderabad
Q3: The ULPGM-V3 can engage targets in which two modes?
- Air-to-ground and air-to-air
Q4: Which warhead is designed specifically to penetrate and destroy bunkers and fortified structures?
- Penetration-cum-Blast Warhead
Q5: The two-way data link on ULPGM-V3 enables:
- Post-launch target updates
Q6: The pre-fragmentation warhead is most effective against:
- Personnel and light vehicles
Q7: Which Bengaluru-based private company integrates ULPGM-V3 on its UAVs?
- Newspace Research and Technologies
Q8: ERA (Explosive Reactive Armour) is a protection system used on:
- Battle tanks
Source/Reference:
https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/drdo-ulpgm-v3-drone-launched-missile-10703365/
Subject: International Relations – QUAD; Indo-Pacific Security; India-US-Japan-Australia Cooperation; Maritime Domain Awareness; FOIP.
Why in News?
- Japanese Foreign Minister Toshimitsu Motegi arrived in India for a two-day visit to participate in the Quad Foreign Ministers’ Meeting.
- The meeting includes Foreign Ministers of Australia (Penny Wong), Japan (Toshimitsu Motegi), and US Secretary of State Marco Rubio, hosted by External Affairs Minister Dr. S. Jaishankar in New Delhi.
- The Quad Foreign Ministers will discuss the evolving security matrix of the Indo-Pacific and escalating friction points across West Asia.
What is QUAD?
Full Name
- Quadrilateral Security Dialogue
Members (4 countries)
- India
- Japan
- United States
- Australia
Origins
- Concept first proposed by Japanese Prime Minister Shinzo Abe in 2007.
- First formal meeting held in 2007 on the margins of ASEAN meetings.
- Revived in 2017 after a decade of dormancy.
- Elevated to leader-level summits from 2021 onwards.
Nature
- Not a military alliance – described as a “diplomatic grouping” or “minilateral” forum.
- Focuses on practical cooperation in the Indo-Pacific region.
- Emphasises a Free and Open Indo-Pacific (FOIP) .
QUAD’s Core Objectives
- Promote a free, open, and inclusive Indo-Pacific based on rule of law.
- Ensure freedom of navigation and overflight (consistent with UNCLOS).
- Support democratic values, sovereignty, and territorial integrity of nations.
- Enhance maritime security and domain awareness.
- Strengthen supply chain resilience (including critical technologies, semiconductors, medical supplies).
- Cooperate on climate change, infrastructure development, cyber security, counter-terrorism, and public health.
Key Initiatives Under QUAD
- QUAD Vaccine Partnership (2021)
- Aimed to produce and deliver 1 billion vaccines by the end of 2022 (focused on COVID-19).
- Leveraged India’s vaccine manufacturing capacity (Serum Institute of India).
- QUAD Climate Working Group
- Cooperation on clean energy, disaster resilience, and climate adaptation in the Indo-Pacific.
- QUAD Critical and Emerging Technology Working Group
- Focus on semiconductors, 5G/6G, artificial intelligence, quantum computing, biotechnology, and cyber security.
- QUAD Infrastructure Coordination
- Transparent, sustainable, and high-quality infrastructure development (alternative to China’s Belt and Road Initiative – BRI).
- QUAD Maritime Domain Awareness (Quad MDA) Initiative
- Sharing of satellite data to track illegal fishing, monitor maritime traffic, and enhance security in the Indo-Pacific.
- Launched in 2024.
- QUAD Fellowship
- Supports students from Quad countries pursuing STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, Mathematics) master’s and doctoral degrees in the US.
- QUAD Indo-Pacific Logistics Network
- Enhances military-to-military cooperation and logistics support among Quad navies.
India’s Position in QUAD
- Not a military alliance – India maintains strategic autonomy and avoids treaty-based military alliances.
- Supports QUAD as a “plurilateral” forum for practical cooperation, not as an Asian NATO.
- Balances QUAD with other groupings – BRICS, SCO, ASEAN, IORA, BIMSTEC.
- Maintains independent foreign policy – India also has strong ties with Russia and engages with China on border issues.
QUAD and Indo-Pacific
Free and Open Indo-Pacific (FOIP) Vision
- Originally articulated by Japan, now adopted by all Quad members.
- Key principles: rule of law, freedom of navigation, peaceful resolution of disputes, democracy, human rights, transparency, sustainability.
Countering China’s Influence
- QUAD is widely seen as a response to China’s growing military and economic influence in the Indo-Pacific.
- China criticises QUAD as an “exclusive club” aimed at containing its rise.
Key Terms for Prelims
- QUAD (Quadrilateral Security Dialogue): India, Japan, US, Australia – diplomatic grouping for Indo-Pacific cooperation
- FOIP (Free and Open Indo-Pacific): Shared vision of Quad members for a rules-based maritime order
- UNCLOS (United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, 1982): Legal framework for maritime rights and navigation
- Minilateral: Small-group multilateral cooperation (less formal than traditional alliances)
- Plurilateral: Agreement or cooperation among a subset of countries (not all members of a region)
- Indo-Pacific: Strategic region combining Indian Ocean and Pacific Ocean (vs. traditional “Asia-Pacific” focus)
- Quad Vaccine Partnership: COVID-19 vaccine initiative (2021) leveraging India’s manufacturing capacity
- Quad Fellowship: STEM education initiative for students from Quad countries
- Quad MDA (Maritime Domain Awareness): Initiative to share satellite data for maritime security
Possible Prelims MCQs
Q1: The Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (QUAD) consists of India, Japan, Australia, and which other country?
- United States
Q2: The concept of QUAD was first proposed by which Japanese Prime Minister in 2007?
- Shinzo Abe
Q3: Which QUAD initiative shares satellite data to track illegal fishing and enhance maritime security?
- Quad Maritime Domain Awareness (MDA) Initiative
Q4: The legal framework for freedom of navigation in the Indo-Pacific is primarily based on:
- UNCLOS (1982)
Source/Reference:
Subject: Environment – Invasive Species; Social Justice – Women Empowerment; Conservation – Community-Based Livelihoods; Assam – Laokhowa Wildlife Sanctuary.
Why in News?
- A livelihood initiative supported by the International Rhino Foundation (IRF) has helped women in fringe areas of Laokhowa-Burhachapori Wildlife Sanctuary (LBWLS) in Assam turn water hyacinth into market-ready utility items.
- The project (started in 2023) is implemented by Aaranyak (biodiversity conservation group) in collaboration with Kaziranga National Park and Tiger Reserve authorities and Nagaon Wildlife Division.
- The initiative aims to provide alternative livelihoods to prevent fringe communities from resorting to poaching or encroachment, thereby supporting wildlife conservation.
About Water Hyacinth
Scientific Name: Eichhornia crassipes
Origin: Native to South America (Amazon basin)
Type: Free-floating perennial aquatic plant
Reputation
- Considered one of the world’s most invasive aquatic weeds.
- Fast-growing; can double its population in two weeks.
Impact on Ecosystems
- Forms dense mats on water surfaces.
- Physically and chemically suffocates life beneath – reduces oxygen levels, blocks sunlight.
- Affects fish populations, native plants, and water quality.
- Clogs waterways, hampers navigation, and disrupts irrigation.
Spread
- Introduced to India during British colonial period as an ornamental plant.
- Now found in freshwater bodies across tropical and subtropical regions.
Laokhowa-Burhachapori Wildlife Sanctuary (LBWLS) – Context
Location: Central Assam (contiguous with Kaziranga National Park landscape)
Area: 114.19 sq km (approximately)
Key Biodiversity
- Part of the Kaziranga-Karbi Anglong landscape.
- Important habitat for: one-horned rhino, tiger, barking deer, fishing cat, leopard cat, civet, wild boar.
- 225 species of birds, 39 species of fish, 14 species of reptiles, 9 species of amphibians.
History of Degradation
- Rhinos, tigers, and other animals were wiped out from Laokhowa in the 1980s.
- Large swathes of jungle and government land were converted into paddy fields and fisheries by encroachers.
- Poaching was also a contributing factor.
Reclamation (2023)
- Much of the Laokhowa part was reclaimed from encroachers in two phases since February 2023.
- One-horned rhinos returned to the area after 40 years.
Key Terms for Prelims
- Water Hyacinth: Eichhornia crassipes – invasive aquatic weed; native to South America
- Laokhowa-Burhachapori Wildlife Sanctuary (LBWLS): 114.19 sq km; contiguous with Kaziranga; one-horned rhino habitat
- Aaranyak: Assam-based biodiversity conservation group
- International Rhino Foundation (IRF): Global organisation supporting rhino conservation
- One-horned rhino: Rhinoceros unicornis – vulnerable (IUCN); found in Kaziranga, Manas, Orang, Pobitora, Dudhwa, Jaldapara, Gorumara
- Invasive species: Non-native species that spread rapidly and cause ecological or economic harm
Possible Prelims MCQs
Q1: Water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) is native to:
- Amazon basin (South America)
Q2: Which Assam-based biodiversity conservation group implemented the water hyacinth craft project?
- Aaranyak
Q3: The water hyacinth craft project was supported by which international organisation?
- International Rhino Foundation (IRF)
Q4: Laokhowa-Burhachapori Wildlife Sanctuary is contiguous with which protected area?
- Kaziranga National Park and Tiger Reserve
Q5: Which animal returned to Laokhowa after 40 years following reclamation of encroached land?
- One-horned rhino
Q6: One of the major ecological concerns about water hyacinth is:
- It forms dense mats that suffocate aquatic life
Source/Reference:
Subject: Tribal Culture | Environment | Conservation
Why in News?
- The Idu Mishmi tribe was recently in news for its unique conservation-centric cosmology and traditional ecological practices protecting biodiversity in Arunachal Pradesh.
About the Tribe
- Idu Mishmi Tribe is a sub-group of the larger Mishmi community; other groups are Digaru and Miju Mishmis.
- Primarily inhabit Mishmi Hills in Dibang Valley, Lower Dibang, Lohit, and parts of Upper Siang in Arunachal Pradesh.
- Speak the endangered Idu Mishmi language, recognised by UNESCO as vulnerable/endangered.
- Society is patriarchal and patrilineal.
- Major festivals: Reh and Ke-Meh-Ha; local rice beer called Ebu.
Conservation Ethos
- Traditionally animist with deep spiritual ties to forests and wildlife.
- Tigers are considered “elder brothers” in tribal mythology.
- ‘Iyu-ena’ belief system imposes taboos on hunting several species, especially tigers.
- Closely linked with biodiversity-rich Dibang landscape and tiger conservation debates.
Prelims Significance
UPSC frequently asks questions on
- Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs),
- indigenous conservation practices,
- North-East tribes, and
- tribal–environment linkages.
Themes similar to sacred groves, Bishnoi conservation ethics, and tiger reserve conflicts have appeared in previous prelims trends.
The Idu Mishmis exemplify how indigenous belief systems can complement formal conservation frameworks, highlighting the growing UPSC focus on tribal ecology, cultural geography, and community-led biodiversity protection.
Source/Reference:
Oreshnik Missile: Russia’s Hypersonic MIRV-Capable Weapon
Subject: Defence – Missile Technology; Russia-Ukraine War; Hypersonic Weapons; MIRV; Ballistic Missiles.
Why in News?
- Russia used the hypersonic Oreshnik ballistic missile during a mass drone and missile attack on Kyiv, Ukraine on May 24, 2026, killing at least two people.
About Oreshnik Missile
Type
- Russian-made intermediate-range hypersonic ballistic missile.
Derivation
- Based on the RS-26 Rubezh ballistic missile.
Warhead Capability
- Capable of carrying nuclear or conventional warheads.
Multiple Independently Targetable Re-entry Vehicles (MIRVs)
- Equipped with MIRV technology – can carry six to eight warheads.
- Can hit multiple targets simultaneously.
Speed
- Travels at Mach 10 (10 times the speed of sound = approx. 2.5 to 3 km per second).
Range
- Reported range: 5,000 kilometres.
- Can strike targets across Europe and reach the west coast of the United States.
Dimensions
- Estimated length: 15 to 18.5 metres.
- Diameter: approximately 1.9 metres.
Deployment
- Mounted on a mobile transporter and launcher for rapid deployment and concealment.
Name Meaning
- “Oreshnik” means “hazelnut tree” in Russian.
Key Terms for Prelims
- Oreshnik Missile: Russian intermediate-range hypersonic ballistic missile; MIRV-capable; Mach 10 speed
- MIRV (Multiple Independently Targetable Re-entry Vehicle): Single missile carrying multiple warheads that can strike different targets independently
- Hypersonic Missile: Missile traveling at Mach 5 or above (5 times speed of sound)
- Intermediate-Range Ballistic Missile (IRBM): Range 3,000-5,500 km (Oreshnik range ~5,000 km)
- RS-26 Rubezh: Russian ballistic missile on which Oreshnik is based
- Mach 10: 10 times speed of sound (~12,350 km/h; ~3.4 km/s)
- Mobile Transporter and Launcher (TEL): Vehicle for transporting and launching ballistic missiles
- Conventional Warhead: Non-nuclear explosive warhead
- Nuclear Warhead: Warhead using nuclear reaction for destruction
Possible Prelims MCQs
Q1: The Oreshnik missile is a hypersonic ballistic missile developed by which country?
- Russia
Q2: What does “Oreshnik” mean in Russian?
- Hazelnut tree
Q3: What is the reported speed of the Oreshnik missile?
- Mach 10
Q4: The Oreshnik missile is based on which Russian missile system?
- RS-26 Rubezh
Q5: What is the reported range of the Oreshnik missile?
- 5,000 km
Source/Reference:
(MAINS Focus)
GS Paper III – Economy (Fiscal Policy; Subsidies) | GS Paper II – Governance
Fertiliser Subsidy; Food Subsidy; Fiscal Deficit; Energy Crisis; Structural Reforms
Introduction
The Indian rupee is weakening against the US dollar as rising Middle East tensions push up energy and fertiliser costs. Petrol price hikes reflect only partial global price pass-throughs, while foreign investors are pulling out and domestic sentiment remains weak. With a strong El Niño forecast adding to economic stress, India faces mounting risks. In this context, major structural reforms—similar to those of 1991—appear essential, though the growing culture of freebies at both central and state levels remains a key obstacle.
Main Body
The Current Crisis: Multiple Stressors
External Sector:
- Rupee weakening against US dollar; may slide to Rs 100 per dollar without decisive RBI intervention.
- RBI may need a war chest of $50-60 billion for temporary relief.
- Underlying causes lie largely beyond RBI’s control.
Energy and Fertiliser Costs:
- Costs have almost doubled.
- Petrol price hike (Rs 3-4 per litre) is only partial pass-through.
- Similar underpricing exists in LPG, LNG, and fertilisers (especially urea).
Fiscal Deficit:
- Pressures likely to widen fiscal deficit beyond 5% of GDP.
Capital Flows:
- Foreign portfolio investors losing interest and withdrawing.
- Domestic investors equally worried, not coming forward to invest.
Growth and Inflation Projections:
- India will be lucky to clock 6% GDP growth and contain CPI inflation below 6% in FY27.
- If Strait of Hormuz remains closed for another three months:
- GDP growth will fall below 6%.
- CPI inflation will shoot above 6% (upper band of RBI).
- RBI will have to raise repo rates, triggering northward movement of all interest rates.
Tokenism vs. Real Reform
What Has Been Done:
- PM Modi called for austerity measures.
- Some chief ministers reportedly travelled on motorcycles, metros, and electric cars.
Why Tokenism Does Not Work:
- Such tokenism does not last long.
- What is required is political will to undertake structural reforms.
- The technical blueprint is not difficult to prepare.
Fertiliser Subsidy: Leakages and Arbitrage
The Scale of Subsidy:
- India imports 20-25% of its urea requirements.
- Last import tender: minimum landed cost on west coast = $935/tonne.
- Sold to farmers at less than $70/tonne.
- Subsidy covers nearly 90% of cost.
The Arbitrage Problem:
- Large amount diverted from agriculture to other industrial uses in India.
- Smuggled out to neighbouring countries (Nepal, Bangladesh).
Bihar Example:
- Government data shows mismatch between fertiliser supply and usage.
- Cost of Cultivation surveys suggest actual on-farm usage is more than 50% lower than quantity supplied.
- Rest is smuggled into Nepal and Bangladesh.
Fiscal Impact:
- Fertiliser subsidy bill budgeted at Rs 1.71 lakh crore for FY27.
- Almost certain to exceed Rs 2.25 lakh crore; could touch Rs 2.50 lakh crore.
The Solution (Brahmastra):
- Reform entire chemical fertiliser subsidy regime.
- Move towards direct benefit transfer (DBT) on per-acre basis, integrated with PM-Kisan.
- Triangulate different data sets to address tenant farmer concerns.
- Once transition made, leave fertiliser prices to market forces.
- Would curb leakages and smuggling, correct NPK imbalance, improve nutrient use efficiency.
- Could save government at least Rs 40,000-50,000 crore annually.
Second-Best Option:
- Impose quantitative restrictions on fertiliser sales based on landholding size and crops being cultivated.
Third Option:
- Bring urea under nutrient-based subsidy scheme.
- Raise urea prices gradually, reduce prices of phosphatic and potassic fertilisers.
- Keep overall subsidy bill around Rs 2 lakh crore.
Food Subsidy: Rationalise Coverage
The Scale:
- Food subsidy bill for FY27 budgeted at Rs 2.28 lakh crore.
The Contradiction:
- Government claims extreme poverty has fallen to 5.3% (World Bank standards) or around 11% (NITI Aayog’s MPI).
- Yet free foodgrain continues to be distributed to more than 800 million people.
Potential Savings:
- Rationalising coverage under the scheme.
- Increasing issue prices for those above poverty line.
- Could potentially save another Rs 50,000 crore annually.
The Political Economy of Reform
The Biggest Hurdle:
- Culture of distributing freebies, at central and state levels, is now deeply entrenched.
- Failing to undertake reforms would reflect not caution, but policy timidity.
What Is Required:
- Political will to undertake reforms.
- Same priority given to this reform as was given to Jan Dhan-Aadhaar-mobile linkage initiative.
The 1991 Moment:
- The economy seems to be on the brink of a major crisis.
- The only rational way to avoid this is to carry out major reforms, similar to those in 1991.
Conclusion
India faces a 1991-like economic challenge as the rupee weakens, subsidies surge, inflation rises, and investor confidence declines. Fertiliser subsidies have become highly inefficient, with large leakages and smuggling due to huge gaps between import and retail prices. Reforming subsidies through direct benefit transfers linked to PM-Kisan and rationalising food subsidies could save nearly ₹1 lakh crore annually. However, the entrenched culture of freebies remains the biggest obstacle. What India needs now is decisive political will, not policy timidity.
UPSC Mains Practice Question
- Rising subsidy burdens and leakages have revived calls for fertiliser and food subsidy reforms in India. Examine the need for such reforms and the political economy challenges in implementing them. (250 words, 15 marks)
GS Paper III – Environment & Ecology (Renewable Energy) | GS Paper III – Economy (Energy Security)
Installed Capacity vs. Actual Generation; Coal Dependence; Intermittency; Storage; Grid Modernisation
Introduction
The rise in global energy prices due to the West Asia conflict has highlighted India’s continued dependence on external energy supplies, especially through the Strait of Hormuz. Although renewables account for 42.4% of installed power capacity, they generated only 15.8% of electricity in April 2026, while coal contributed 71.8%. India’s energy transition, therefore, still remains heavily coal-dependent.
Main Body
Installed Capacity vs. Actual Generation: The Critical Gap
Impressive Capacity Growth:
- Renewable energy sources accounted for 42.4% of installed power capacity by March 2026.
- Up dramatically from just 0.72% in March 2005.
- Coal’s share in installed capacity fell from 58.7% to 42.2% over the same period.
The Generation Reality (April 2026):
- Renewables generated only 15.8% of electricity.
- Coal still accounted for 71.8% of electricity generation.
- Coal’s share only marginally lower than its 76.2% share in March 2019.
The Key Insight:
- India has succeeded in building renewable infrastructure, but not yet in replacing coal in the actual electricity mix.
- Renewable energy is being added on top of coal rather than displacing it.
Why Coal Persists: Structural Reasons
Intermittency of Solar and Wind:
- Solar and wind output fluctuates with weather conditions and time of day.
- Electricity demand remains continuous.
Baseload Requirement:
- Coal provides the baseload reliability required to keep the system functioning.
- In the absence of large-scale battery storage, flexible grids, and adequate balancing capacity, coal remains the main backup and balancing source.
No New Fossil Fuel Capacity, But No Retirement of Old Coal:
- India has added almost no new fossil fuel capacity since 2018.
- Very few old coal plants have been retired.
- Gas-based capacity has declined.
The Consequence: Vulnerability to External Shocks
Electricity Prices Tied to Fossil Fuels:
- Historical trends show Indian electricity prices moving alongside Brent crude in recent years.
- Even domestically anchored sectors remain indirectly exposed to external commodity cycles.
Transmission Mechanism:
- Crude price spike raises transportation and industrial costs directly.
- Also pushes up coal prices, electricity tariffs, inflation, and fiscal pressures.
West Asia Conflict Impact:
- Current geopolitical tensions affect India more severely than countries that have broken the fossil fuel-electricity link.
- Nearly half of India’s fossil fuel imports still transit through the Strait of Hormuz.
Comparative Examples: China and Spain
China:
- Oil and gas account for only 4% of its power mix.
- Electric vehicles and hybrids now over half of new car sales, reducing oil demand by over a million barrels a day.
- Less exposed to global oil price shocks.
Spain:
- Has broken the gas-electricity link through renewables.
- Demonstrates the alternative path.
India:
- Transition is real, but incomplete.
- Still runs on coal.
The Wrong Benchmark: Focus on Installed Capacity
Why the Focus on Installed Capacity?
- Offers an attractive measure of progress.
- Easy to report and celebrate.
Why It Is Misleading:
- Power systems are not sustained by headline capacity additions.
- They depend on actual electricity generation and the ability to supply power consistently when it is needed most.
- The distinction matters because it shapes perceptions of vulnerability.
What the Next Phase Requires: System Transformation
Moving Beyond Capacity Creation:
- The next phase requires moving towards system transformation itself.
Key Investments Needed:
- Storage infrastructure (battery storage, pumped hydro) to address intermittency.
- Grid modernisation to handle fluctuating renewable supply.
- Transmission connectivity to link renewable-rich regions (Rajasthan, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu) with demand centres.
- Market mechanisms capable of integrating intermittent renewables at scale.
Recognition:
- Coal’s persistence is not simply a policy failure or institutional inertia.
- Coal currently performs a stabilising function within the grid that renewable energy, in its present form, cannot yet fully replicate.
The Core Challenge
Not Just Producing More Green Power:
- India’s energy challenge today is not merely about producing more green power.
- It is about building an electricity system in which renewables can reliably substitute for fossil fuels in actual generation.
Until That Happens:
- Every geopolitical crisis and every spike in global energy prices will continue to remind India that its green transition still runs on coal.
Conclusion
India’s renewable energy transition is significant but incomplete. While renewables formed 42.4% of installed power capacity by March 2026, they generated only 15.8% of electricity in April 2026, with coal still supplying 71.8%. Limited battery storage, inflexible grids, and the need for baseload reliability keep India dependent on coal and fossil fuel-linked electricity prices. The next phase of transition requires major investments in storage, grid modernisation, transmission, and market reforms; otherwise, external energy shocks will continue to expose India’s coal dependence.
UPSC Mains Practice Question
- Despite rising renewable capacity, coal remains dominant in India’s power generation. Why does this gap persist, and what reforms are needed for a real energy transition? (250 words, 15 marks)
