Category: ECONOMICS

Context:  The rupee recorded its biggest single-day fall in nearly 3 months, depreciating by 61 paise to close at ₹87.42 per USD.

• Cause:
  • Trump Tariff Announcement: US President Donald Trump warned of 20–25% tariffs on Indian goods.
  • Month-end dollar demand.
  • Aggressive FPI selling.
• Market Reaction:
  • Rupee fell sharply after touching an intraday low of ₹87.66.
  • The rupee has depreciated by 161 paise in the last 11 sessions.
• Contributing Factors:
  • Fears of economic impact from new US tariffs.
  • Heavy outflows by FPIs (₹16,370 crore in a week).
  • Dollar demand from importers (especially oil firms).
  • Stronger dollar globally.

Learning Corner:

Currency Appreciation & Depreciation:

• Appreciation: When the value of the Indian Rupee rises relative to foreign currencies (e.g., ₹75/USD becomes ₹70/USD).
• Depreciation: When the Rupee falls in value (e.g., ₹75/USD becomes ₹80/USD).

Link with Inflation:

• Depreciation → Costlier Imports → Imported Inflation
  • India depends heavily on oil, electronics, and capital goods imports.
  • A weaker rupee makes these imports more expensive, leading to higher domestic prices.
  • It fuels cost-push inflation (e.g., higher transport and input costs).
• Appreciation → Cheaper Imports → Helps Tame Inflation
  • A stronger rupee reduces the import bill, especially for crude oil.
  • It can ease inflationary pressure, particularly in sectors dependent on imported inputs.

Broader Impact on Indian Economy:

RBI Intervention via the Forex Market:

Objective: To stabilize the exchange rate of the rupee.

When the Rupee Depreciates Sharply:

• RBI sells US Dollars from its foreign exchange reserves.
• This increases the supply of dollars and demand for rupees, supporting the rupee.
• Helps curb imported inflation (e.g., oil becomes less costly in rupee terms).

When the Rupee Appreciates Excessively:

• RBI buys US Dollars, injecting rupees into the market.
• Prevents exports from becoming uncompetitive.
• Avoids disinflation or deflation risk due to excess appreciation.

Tool Used: Spot and forward transactions, swaps, open market operations in forex.

RBI Intervention via Monetary Policy:

Objective: To control domestic inflation and manage capital flows.

When Inflation Rises (Often Due to Depreciation):

• RBI may increase the repo rate (tight monetary policy).
• Higher interest rates attract foreign capital inflows, strengthening the rupee.
• Also reduces domestic demand, controlling demand-pull inflation.

When Growth Slows and Inflation is Low:

• RBI may cut interest rates to boost credit and investment.
• This may lead to mild rupee depreciation, which can support exports.

Tool Used: Repo rate, CRR, SLR, Open Market Operations (OMOs)

Source: THE INDIAN EXPRESS

Category: ENVIRONMENT

Context: Restoring Mangroves Can Turn the Tide on India’s Coastal Security

Why Mangroves Matter:

• Natural Barriers: Protect coastal areas from cyclones, tidal surges, and erosion.
• Climate Mitigation: Act as carbon sinks; trap carbon dioxide and store blue carbon.
• Biodiversity Hotspots: Provide habitat for fish, crabs, molluscs, and migratory birds.
• Cultural/Economic Value: Vital to local communities for fishing, farming, and traditional practices.

Major Threats to Mangroves:

• Urban expansion, pollution, shrimp farming, altered hydrology, and climate change.
• Over 50% of mangroves globally are at risk of collapse by 2050 (IUCN report).

Learning Corner:

Mangroves

• Mangroves are salt-tolerant trees and shrubs found in coastal intertidal zones of tropical and subtropical regions.
• They grow in brackish water, where freshwater mixes with seawater, especially in estuaries, lagoons, and deltas.
• India has about 4,975 sq km of mangrove cover (as per ISFR 2021), mainly in Sundarbans, Gujarat, and Andhra Pradesh.

Unique Features of Mangroves

1. Salt Tolerance (Halophytic Nature)
   • Survive in saline conditions through salt-excreting leaves and special root adaptations.
2. Special Root Systems
   • Have stilt roots, pneumatophores (breathing roots), and prop roots for oxygen absorption and anchorage in soft, waterlogged soils.
3. Tidal Adaptability
   • Thrive in highly dynamic tidal zones, tolerating both flooding and exposure to air.
4. High Carbon Sequestration
   • Store large amounts of “blue carbon” in both biomass and deep, anoxic soils  crucial for climate change mitigation.
5. Nursery Grounds
   • Serve as breeding and nursery habitats for fish, crabs, shrimps, and molluscs — vital for coastal livelihoods.
6. Natural Coastal Barriers
   • Protect shorelines from cyclones, tsunamis, storm surges, and coastal erosion.
7. Species Diversity
   • India hosts over 40 mangrove species, with Avicennia, Rhizophora, and Sonneratia being common genera.

Ecological and Economic Significance

• Provide ecosystem services, such as biodiversity support, carbon storage, fisheries productivity, and livelihoods.
• Act as bioshields, especially in disaster-prone coastal areas like the Sundarbans and Odisha coast.

Mangrove Cover in India by State/UT (Descending Order):

Total Mangrove Area in India: 4,975 sq km (approx. 0.15% of total geographical area)

Source:  THE HINDU

Category: GEOGRAPHY

Context : A massive 8.8 magnitude earthquake struck Russia’s Kamchatka Peninsula, one of the strongest in recent times.

What Happened?

• It occurred on the Circum-Pacific Seismic Belt (Ring of Fire), which accounts for 80% of the world’s strongest quakes.
• Triggered a tsunami with waves up to 3–4 metres in parts of Kamchatka and up to 2 feet in Hawaii.
• No casualties were reported despite significant flooding.

Context & Rarity

• Only five quakes of magnitude 8.5+ have occurred globally in the past 20 years.
• Kamchatka is within the Ring of Fire, a highly active seismic zone with frequent earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.
• Last earthquake of similar magnitude in the region was in 1952.

Why It Happened – Subduction Zone

• Caused by subduction: movement where a denser oceanic plate dives beneath a lighter continental/oceanic plate.
• The Pacific Plate is being subducted under surrounding plates, leading to frequent high-magnitude quakes.
• The Pacific Ocean bed is the most seismically active region due to this tectonic process.

Other Vulnerable Zones

• The Circum-Pacific Belt includes:
  • Japan, Chile, Indonesia, Alaska, and Russia
• Also compares to the Alpide Belt and Mid-Atlantic Ridge, though those are less active.

Learning Corner:

Earthquakes

• Sudden release of energy in the Earth’s lithosphere due to faulting, volcanic activity, or tectonic movements.
• Most earthquakes occur along plate boundaries, especially convergent and transform margins.

Tsunamis

• Series of large ocean waves triggered mainly by undersea earthquakes at convergent boundaries (especially subduction zones).
• Can also result from submarine landslides or volcanic eruptions.
• Not caused by every earthquake—only vertical displacement of the sea floor triggers tsunamis.

Circum-Pacific Belt (Ring of Fire)

• A horseshoe-shaped zone encircling the Pacific Ocean with intense seismic and volcanic activity.
• Accounts for ~75% of the world’s volcanoes and ~90% of earthquakes.
• Formed due to subduction of oceanic plates beneath continental plates (e.g., Pacific Plate under the North American, Eurasian, and Indo-Australian Plates).

Geographical Features Formed at Convergent Boundaries

At convergent plate boundaries, two tectonic plates move toward each other, leading to intense geological activity. Depending on the type of plates involved (continental or oceanic), different geographical features are formed:

Oceanic–Continental Convergence

• Subduction: The denser oceanic plate is forced beneath the lighter continental plate.
• Geographical Features:
  • Oceanic Trench: Deep linear depressions (e.g., Peru-Chile Trench).
  • Fold Mountains: Formed due to compression and uplift (e.g., Andes Mountains).
  • Volcanic Arc: Chain of explosive volcanoes on the overriding continental plate (e.g., Andean Volcanic Belt).
  • Earthquake Zones: Including deep-focus earthquakes (Benioff zone).

Oceanic–Oceanic Convergence

• One oceanic plate subducts under another.
• Geographical Features:
  • Oceanic Trench: (e.g., Mariana Trench, the deepest on Earth).
  • Volcanic Island Arc: A curved chain of volcanic islands (e.g., Japan, Philippines, Aleutian Islands).
  • Submarine Earthquakes & Tsunamis: Common in these zones.

Continental–Continental Convergence

• Both plates are buoyant, so neither subduct easily. Instead, they crumple and uplift.
• Geographical Features:
  • Fold Mountains: Massive mountain ranges formed from crustal shortening (e.g., Himalayas, Alps).
  • High Plateaus: Thickened crust results in elevated regions (e.g., Tibetan Plateau).
  • Seismic Activity: Intense earthquakes due to crustal stress.

Additional Features

• Metamorphic rocks: Formed due to high pressure and temperature.
• Ophiolite sequences: Oceanic crust obducted onto continental crust (in rare cases).

Geographical Features Formed at Divergent Boundaries

Mid-Ocean Ridges

• Definition: Underwater mountain chains formed where oceanic plates diverge.
• Example: Mid-Atlantic Ridge (between Eurasian & North American plates).
• Process: Magma rises, cools, and solidifies, forming new oceanic crust.

Rift Valleys (on land)

• Definition: Deep valleys formed by the pulling apart of continental plates.
• Example: East African Rift Valley, Baikal Rift in Russia.
• Process: Crust stretches and thins, forming faults and depressions.

Volcanoes

• Where: Along mid-ocean ridges or rift valleys.
• Nature: Generally non-explosive basaltic eruptions due to low viscosity magma.
• Example: Volcanic islands like Iceland (formed at mid-Atlantic ridge above sea level).

Shallow Earthquakes

• Caused by the tensional forces as plates move apart.
• Typically, lower in magnitude compared to those at convergent boundaries.

New Ocean Basins

• Over time, continental rifting can lead to the formation of a new sea.
• Example: The Red Sea is forming where Africa is rifting from the Arabian Peninsula.

Source:  THE INDIAN EXPRESS

Category: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Context India and the United States have successfully launched the NASA-ISRO Synthetic Aperture Radar (NISAR) Earth observation satellite on July 30, 2025, from the Satish Dhawan Space Centre in Sriharikota, India

What is NISAR?

• NISAR (NASA-ISRO Synthetic Aperture Radar) is a joint Earth observation satellite by ISRO and NASA.
• Launching in July 2025, it is the world’s most powerful Earth-observation satellite, built at a cost of $1.5 billion.
• Designed to track changes on Earth in near real-time, especially in land, ice, and vegetation.

What Makes NISAR Special?

• Uses two types of Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR):
  • L-band SAR (from NASA) – penetrates deeper into vegetation and ice.
  • S-band SAR (from ISRO) – for high-resolution surface mapping.
• Operates in two frequency bands simultaneously, allowing 3D imaging and detection of subtle changes over time (e.g., landslides, glacial movement, earthquakes, etc.).
• Uses large radar antenna (12 m in diameter) and deployable solar arrays for power.

Scientific Benefits

• Will help in studying:
  • Deformation of Earth’s crust (e.g., due to earthquakes, volcanoes)
  • Glacial dynamics and melting
  • Forest biomass and carbon cycle
  • Groundwater level changes
  • Agricultural changes
  • Disaster impact analysis

ISRO-NASA Collaboration

• NASA contributed L-band SAR and launch mission planning.
• ISRO contributed S-band SAR, the satellite bus, and will launch it from Satish Dhawan Space Centre.
• NASA invested $1.1 billion; ISRO spent ₹900 crore.

Technology Highlights

• Radar Antenna Reflector: 12 m across, folds up for launch.
• 3L-Band SAR: Penetrates through ice, vegetation.
• 4S-Band SAR: Surface-sensitive, can’t penetrate deep.
• Deployable Solar Arrays: Provide required power.

Learning Corner:

Earth Observation Satellites 

India (ISRO)

EOS Series (Earth Observation Satellites)

• EOS-04 (Launched Feb 2022):
  • Radar imaging satellite (in all weather conditions).
  • Used for agriculture, forestry, soil moisture, and flood mapping.
• EOS-06 (Oceansat-3) (Launched Nov 2022):
  • Ocean color monitor, sea surface temperature, and wind vector measurements.
  • Supports fisheries and cyclone monitoring.
• EOS-02 (Part of SSLV’s maiden launch in Aug 2022):
  • Launch unsuccessful, but satellite was aimed at infrared imaging.

International Satellites

Landsat 9 (NASA & USGS — Launched Sep 2021)

• Successor to Landsat 8, provides high-resolution multispectral imagery.
• Tracks urban growth, deforestation, glacier retreat, etc.

Sentinel Series (ESA’s Copernicus Program)

• Sentinel-6 Michael Freilich (Launched Nov 2020):
  • Tracks sea-level rise with radar altimetry.
  • Successor of Jason missions.
• Sentinel-1C & 2C (To be launched soon — part of ongoing expansion).

Gaofen Series (China)

• Gaofen-3, 5, 7 & 11 satellites (Multiple launched from 2020–2023):
  • High-resolution optical and radar satellites for agriculture, urban planning, and disaster monitoring.

GOSAT-2 (Greenhouse gases Observing Satellite-2)

• Joint project of JAXA, measures CO₂ and CH₄ concentrations globally.
• Highly significant for climate change data.

KOMPSAT-6 (South Korea) (Launched 2022)

• High-resolution radar satellite for land mapping, disaster assessment, and military applications.

Source: THE INDIAN EXPRESS

Category: ECONOMICS

Context: The Indian government will release a new GDP series on February 27, 2026, using FY 2022–23 as the new base year, replacing the current 2011–12 base

Updates on Other Indicators:

• Index of Industrial Production (IIP):
  • New base year: 2022–23
  • Revised series to begin from FY 2026–27
• Consumer Price Index (CPI):
  • New base year: 2024
  • Updated weights from 2023–24 Household Consumption and Expenditure Survey (HCES)
  • New CPI series to be released in Q1 of 2026

Current Data Release Schedule:

• CPI: 12th of every month at 4 PM
• IIP: 28th of every month

The base year revisions aim to improve the accuracy and relevance of India’s macroeconomic statistics, aiding better policy formulation and analysis.

Learning Corner:

Gross Domestic Product (GDP):

• Definition: GDP is the total monetary value of all final goods and services produced within a country’s domestic territory in a given period (usually a year).
• It includes:
  • Output from agriculture, industry, and services.
  • Taxes on products (like GST) minus subsidies.

Formula:
GDP at Market Prices = GVA at Basic Prices + Product Taxes – Product Subsidies

Gross Value Added (GVA):

• Definition: GVA is the value of output minus the value of intermediate consumption.
  It measures the actual value added in the production process.

It is calculated at:

• Basic Prices (i.e., excludes taxes & subsidies on products).

Sectoral contributions like agriculture, manufacturing, construction, and services are first measured using GVA.

Key Differences:

Source: THE HINDU

Introduction (Context)

On July 23, 2024, the International Court of Justice (ICJ) delivered its advisory opinion on the obligations of States to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and the legal consequences of failing to do so. 

The case was initiated by Vanuatu, a Pacific island nation with a population of just 3,00,000. In March 2023, it led a coalition of small island states to secure consensual approval from the United Nations General Assembly to ask the ICJ two questions: What are states legally required to do to address climate change, and what are the consequences if they do not fulfil these duties?

The opinion, sought by the United Nations General Assembly (UNGA), reaffirms key principles of international climate law, but also raises interpretational concerns and highlights the development-versus-environment tensions.

Key Takeaways

Reinforced Multilateral Climate Framework:

• ICJ emphasised the combined legal force of the UNFCCC, Kyoto Protocol, and Paris Agreement.

• Rejected the notion, often pushed by developed countries, that the Paris Agreement alone is binding

Reinforcement of Obligations for Developed Countries

• ICJ underlined that developed nations must provide climate finance, facilitate technology transfer and support capacity building for developing countries
• These obligations flow directly from UNFCCC Articles.
• Also reiterated the continued relevance of Annex-I and Annex-II lists, which define developed countries with additional responsibilities

Rejection of Annex-Based Dilution

• Some developed countries and academics have claimed that the Annex-based differentiation (from UNFCCC) is obsolete after the Paris Agreement.
• The ICJ strongly rejected this claim, affirming that Annex I/II obligations continue.

CBDR-RC as the Core Guiding Principle

• ICJ declared Common But Differentiated Responsibilities and Respective Capabilities (CBDR-RC) as the core principle for interpreting climate treaties. (A norm that guides obligations beyond climate treaties e.g., for biodiversity or other environmental issues).
• Based on Article 3 of the UNFCCC, CBDR-RC remains foundational to climate justice.

Acknowledgement of Evolving National Circumstances

• The Court noted that the Paris Agreement introduced a nuance by saying CBDR-RC should be applied “in the light of national circumstances.”
• ICJ interpreted this to mean that the classification of nations (developed/developing) is not permanent, and may change over time.
• This introduces interpretational complexity and may challenge fixed North–South divisions in future climate talks.

Issues/Gaps

Issue in Temperature Goal Interpretation

• The ICJ opinion says that the original temperature target mentioned in Article 2.1(a) of the Paris Agreement — which is to keep global warming well below 2°C and try to limit it to 1.5°C — is no longer valid to define countries’ climate obligations.

• Instead, the Court says that because countries agreed during two major climate meetings (COP26 and COP28) to focus on the 1.5°C target, this shows they have unofficially updated the Paris Agreement. So, according to the ICJ, countries must now shape their climate actions only to meet the 1.5°C goal, and not the original range (below 2°C with efforts for 1.5°C).
• This is a surprising conclusion, because:

• • The world is likely to cross the 1.5°C mark in the next few years.
  • The Court does not discuss what will happen if this goal is missed.
  • It also seems unusual that the Court treats decisions made after the agreement as if they can change the meaning of the agreement itself.

Nature of Obligations: Conduct vs. Result

• The ICJ did not establish new enforceable obligations.
• The Court agreed with the usual interpretation followed by developed countries (Global North) that Actions like reducing emissions or helping developing countries with finance and technology are only “obligations of conduct.” This means countries just need to try to meet their goals they are not legally required to succeed.
• Only procedural duties, like regularly submitting their climate action plans (Nationally Determined Contributions or NDCs), are considered stronger and more enforceable.

The opinion argues that even as obligations of conduct, the requirements on countries to meet their commitments can be sufficiently stringent. However, it depends on suitable courts with the requisite jurisdiction to enforce them and is contingent on the circumstances of every individual case.

Neglect of Global South’s Development Challenges

• Failed to address developmental trade-offs faced by the Global South:
  On the one hand southern nations will be increasingly unable to meet their energy needs for rapid poverty eradication and sustainable growth in the absence of adequate carbon space, while on the other hand low-carbon development requires finance and technology on a scale that remains out of reach.
• No new enforcement framework has been formed to ensure Global North compliance with climate finance or technology obligations.

Public policy challenges for India due to ICJ verdict

1. Legal Preparedness

• Indian courts already recognise the right to a healthy environment under the right to life (Article 21).

• The ICJ opinion could trigger new legal cases demanding stronger climate action from the government.
• India may even face lawsuits from neighbouring island nations affected by climate change.
• Urgent need to prepare legal standards and frameworks to handle such litigation, or risk policy instability.

2.Weak Enforcement of Environmental Laws

• India’s environmental laws are strong on paper but often poorly implemented.
• Pollution control boards are often underfunded and understaffed
• Compliance varies widely across states and industries
• The ICJ opinion highlights the importance of “due diligence” by states.
• India must urgently strengthen regulatory institutions and ensure better enforcement capacity nationwide.

3. Fossil Fuel Subsidies

• Subsidies for fuels like LPG, kerosene, and diesel help poor households, but they delay the transition to cleaner energy.
• India must rethink how to support the poor without locking them into polluting fuel use.

Conclusion

The milestone ICJ opinion is not just a verdict from afar, but a compass. It signals the end of voluntary climate ambition and invites all countries to chart a harder, but fairer course. For India, the challenge now is to align duty with dignity and ambition with justice.

Mains Practice Question

Q Critically analyse the ICJ’s advisory opinion on climate obligations in the context of equity and the principle of Common But Differentiated Responsibilities and Respective Capabilities (CBDR-RC).  (250 words, 15 marks)

Source: https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/energy-and-environment/what-did-the-icj-opinion-say-on-climate-obligations-explained/article69869053.ece#:~:text=The%20ICJ’s%20opinion%20has%20several,Protocol%20and%20the%20Paris%20Agreement.

Introduction (Context)

The India Justice Report 2025 revealed that despite a legal mandate, only 15.5 lakh people received legal aid between April 2023 and March 2024—far below the scale envisioned. This highlights a growing concern about the capacity, budget, and outreach of India’s legal aid system.

What is Legal aid

• Legal aid refers to free legal services provided to persons who are unable to afford legal representation and access to the court system due to social and economic constraints.
• These services are governed by Legal Services Authorities Act, 1987 and headed by the National Legal Services Authority (NALSA).
• Provision of free legal aid may include:

1. 1. Representation by an Advocate in legal proceedings.
   2. Payment of process fees, expenses of witnesses and all other charges payable or incurred in connection with any legal proceedings in appropriate cases;
   3. Preparation of pleadings, memo of appeal, paper book including printing and translation of documents in legal proceedings;
   4. Drafting of legal documents, special leave petition etc.
   5. Supply of certified copies of judgments, orders, notes of evidence and other documents in legal proceedings.

• Free Legal Services also include provision of aid and advice to the beneficiaries to access the benefits under the welfare statutes and schemes framed by the Central Government or the State Government and to ensure access to justice in any other manner.
• Free legal aid is not confined to cases before the subordinate Courts. Legal Aid is provided to the needy from the lowest Court to the Supreme Court of India. Legal Aid Counsel represent such needy persons before the lower Courts, High Courts and also before the Supreme Court of India.

Constitutional & Legal Provisions

• Article 39A (Directive Principle): Mandates the State to provide free legal aid by suitable legislation or schemes.
• Article 14 & 21: Right to equality before law and right to life and personal liberty form the basis for access to justice.

Benefits of Free Legal Aid in India

• Enables economically weaker sections to obtain legal representation and justice. Upholds the principle of equality before law.
• Educates marginalized communities about their rights and legal remedies.
• Empowers citizens to protect their rights and seek redressal.
• Guarantees fair representation irrespective of socio-economic background
• Helps individuals tackle legal hurdles that obstruct economic and social mobility.
• Assists vulnerable groups in cases of domestic violence, child abuse, discrimination, etc.
• Organizes workshops, campaigns, and outreach activities. Spreads awareness of rights, legal procedures, and grievance redress mechanisms.
• Offers mediation, conciliation, and arbitration services.

What is NALSA?

• The National Legal Services Authority (NALSA) has been constituted under the Legal Services Authorities Act, 1987 to provide free Legal Services to the weaker sections of the society and to organize Lok Adalats for amicable settlement of disputes.
• NALSA lays down policies, principles, guidelines and frames effective and economical schemes for the State Legal Services Authorities to implement the Legal Services Programmes throughout the country. Primarily, the State Legal Services Authorities, District Legal Services Authorities, Taluk Legal Services Committees, etc. 
• Functions:

• • To Provide Free and Competent Legal Services to the eligible persons;
  • To organize Lok Adalats for amicable settlement of disputes and
  • To organize legal awareness camps in the rural areas.

• NALSA works in close coordination with the various State Legal Services Authorities, District Legal Services Authorities and other agencies for a regular exchange of relevant information, monitoring and updating on the implementation and progress of the various schemes.

Key Highlights from India Justice Report 2025

Poor Reach: 

• Legal aid reached only 15.5 lakh persons in 2023–24, though nearly 80% of the population is eligible. Despite a 28% rise from previous year, numbers remain low for a population of over 1.4 billion.

Legal aid clinics: 

• In rural and remote areas, legal aid clinics serve village clusters. Nationally, there is one legal service clinic for every 163 villages, as per the India Justice Report 2025, the availability and presence of these services is dependent on financial and human resources available.

Budgetary gaps: 

• Legal aid receives less than 1% of the total justice budget, funded jointly by the Centre (via NALSA) and the States. 
• From 2017–18 to 2022–23, overall legal aid allocations nearly doubled from ₹601 crore to ₹1,086 crore, driven primarily by increased state contributions. 
• Thirteen states, led by Karnataka, Maharashtra, and Madhya Pradesh, increased their legal aid budgets by over 100%.
• In contrast, NALSA’s central funds declined from ₹207 crore to ₹169 crore, with utilisation dropping from 75% to 59%. 
• As per the NALSA Manual (2023), spending from central funds is restricted and capped 50% for legal aid/advice, 25% for awareness, and 25% for ADR/mediation. For the rest of the work, prior approval is needed.
• National per capita spending on legal aid rose from ₹3 (2019) to ₹7 (2023), with Haryana spending the highest (₹16) and states like West Bengal, Bihar, and UP spending below average.

Para-Legal volunteers

• Para-legal volunteers (PLVs) serve as vital community-level legal support, creating awareness and facilitating dispute resolution. 
• However, their numbers declined by 38% from 2019 to 2024, with only 3.1 PLVs per lakh population in 2023 (down from 5.7), and states like West Bengal and Uttar Pradesh had just one PLV per lakh.
• The decline is attributed to low budgets, irregular deployment, and inadequate honorariums. 
• Despite training over 53,000 PLVs in 2023–24, only 14,000 were deployed, a sharp fall from 22,000 in 2019–20. 
• Honorariums remain below minimum wage in most states—Kerala being the only one paying ₹750/day. Twenty-two states pay ₹500/day, three pay ₹400, and three others (Gujarat, Meghalaya, Mizoram) offer just ₹250/day, insufficient to cover basic costs.

Obstacles to Legal Assistance in India

• The legal aid movement in India is now unorganised, dispersed, and intermittent. There is a lack of coordination. 
• Lawyers do not participate in pro bono work for a variety of reasons. Financial resources are scarce. Earlier legal education did not include social education. As a result, they do not comprehend or embrace their role, and members of the profession do not often interact with people of the community who require legal aid.
• Illiteracy is another significant barrier to legal help. The lack of legal understanding leads to exploitation and deprivation of the poor’s rights and advantages.

Steps needed

• Educate people on legal rights and remedies through local language campaigns
• Collaborate with grassroots organizations to spread awareness in remote areas
• Introduce social responsibility modules in legal education. Encourage voluntary legal service among law professionals.
• Establish accountability for aid delivery and outcomes.
• Invest in court-based and community-based legal aid services.

Conclusion

While states are working towards enhancing funding for legal aid, persistent challenges like uneven service quality, weak accountability, and limited public confidence continue to hinder its impact. Many of these problems can be addressed by increasing financial and human resources. Strengthening the capacity of legal aid mechanisms is crucial to ensure their effectiveness. Without adequate support, the system cannot deliver the standard of justice promised by the Constitution.

Mains Practice Question

Q Access to legal aid is essential for ensuring justice for the marginalised in India. Critically examine. (250 words, 15 marks)

Source: https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/boost-the-capacity-of-legal-aid-systems/article69874191.ece