DAILY CURRENT AFFAIRS IAS | UPSC Prelims and Mains Exam – 17th April 2026

Subject: Polity & Governance: Amendment of the Constitution (Article 368); Parliamentary Procedure; Types of Bills

News Context:

• The Constitution (131st Amendment) Bill, 2026 was introduced in Lok Sabha on April 16, 2026, to increase Lok Sabha seats to up to 850 and implement Women’s Reservation 
• The Bill requires special majority and ratification by at least 15 state legislatures before presidential assent 

Constitutional Basis: Article 368

• Part XX of the Constitution deals with amendment procedure
• Parliament has the power to add, vary, or repeal any provision following the prescribed process 
• Note: Certain provisions (e.g., creation of new states, abolition of legislative councils) can be amended by simple majority and are not considered “Constitution amendment” under Article 368 

Three Types of Amendment Procedures

1. Simple Majority (Not under Article 368)

• Requirement: More than 50% of members present and voting 
• Examples: Admission of new states, creation/abolition of Legislative Councils, Scheduled Areas administration 

2. Special Majority of Parliament

• Requirement:
  • Majority (more than 50%) of total membership of each House
  • Two-thirds of members present and voting in each House 
• Examples: Fundamental Rights, Directive Principles, and most other provisions 

3. Special Majority + State Ratification

• Parliament requirement: Same as special majority above
• State ratification: At least half of the states (14 out of 28) must ratify by simple majority 
• Provisions covered: Election of President, extent of executive powers of Union/States, Supreme Court and High Court powers, distribution of legislative powers (federal structure) 

Key Differences: Constitutional Amendment vs. Ordinary Bill

Basic Structure Doctrine (Judicial Review)

• Kesavananda Bharati case (1973): Supreme Court held that Parliament cannot amend the “basic structure” of the Constitution 
• Amendments violating basic structure can be struck down by judiciary 
• Example: Constitution (99th) Amendment Act, 2014 on NJAC was declared unconstitutional 

Static-Dynamic Linkage

Static (Polity Syllabus):

• Article 368 – Amendment procedure
• Article 368(2) – Special majority requirement
• Article 368(3) – State ratification requirement
• Article 13(2) – Laws inconsistent with Fundamental Rights (limits on amendment)
• Basic Structure Doctrine – Kesavananda Bharati (1973)

Dynamic (Current Affairs – 2026):

• Constitution (131st Amendment) Bill, 2026 – currently before Parliament 
• Requires ratification by 15 state legislatures
• Opposition concerns over delimitation and federal balance 
• Article 170(1) – State Assembly size capped at 500 seats (potential conflict) 

Source/Reference:

https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/parliament-budget-special-session-live-april-16-women-reservation/article70867519.ece#341502

Subject: Polity – Official Language; Eighth Schedule; Article 345; Sixth Schedule; Meghalaya.

Why in News?

• The Meghalaya cabinet approved the Meghalaya Official Languages Ordinance, 2026, declaring Khasi and Garo as official languages of the state, alongside English
• The move comes amid a long-standing demand for inclusion of Khasi and Garo in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution

Key Provisions of the Ordinance

Official Languages Status

• Khasi and Garo will now be used in government communications
• English will continue as a “common thread” in communications

Why This is Significant

Current Status

• All official business in Meghalaya currently carried out in English only
• Khasi and Garo are the languages of the state’s two largest tribes

Demand for Eighth Schedule Inclusion

• Long-standing demand for inclusion of Khasi and Garo in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution
• Eighth Schedule currently lists 22 scheduled languages
• Inclusion in Eighth Schedule provides:
  • Official recognition at national level
  • Representation on Official Language Commission
  • Availability of funds for preservation and development
  • Use in Civil Services examinations (as optional subjects)

Eighth Schedule of the Constitution

Constitutional Provisions

• Article 344: Appointment of Official Language Commission
• Article 351: Directive for development of Hindi as official language
• Eighth Schedule: Lists the official languages of India

Current Languages in Eighth Schedule (22)

• Assamese, Bengali, Bodo, Dogri, Gujarati, Hindi, Kannada, Kashmiri, Konkani, Maithili, Malayalam, Manipuri, Marathi, Nepali, Odia, Punjabi, Sanskrit, Santali, Sindhi, Tamil, Telugu, Urdu

Languages Not in Eighth Schedule (Including Khasi and Garo)

• Khasi, Garo, Mizo, Kokborok, Lepcha, Bhutia, Angika, Bajjika, Bhojpuri, Magahi, etc.
• These languages lack national-level official recognition

Process for Inclusion in Eighth Schedule

• Proposed by state government or linguistic community
• Referred to Parliament’s Committee on Official Language
• Requires Constitutional Amendment Bill passed by Parliament

Static-Dynamic Linkage

Static (Polity / Language Policy Syllabus)

• Part XVII of Constitution: Official language provisions (Articles 343-351)
• Article 345: State legislature may adopt any language(s) as official language of that state
• Article 346: Official language for communication between states
• Article 347: Special provision for linguistic minorities
• Eighth Schedule: Evolution – 14 languages originally (1950), now 22
• Official Language Act, 1963: English continues as associate official language

Dynamic (Current Affairs – 2026)

• Meghalaya cabinet approval (April 2026) – first state to take legislative step before Eighth Schedule inclusion
• Demand for Eighth Schedule expansion – recurring issue in linguistic minority states
• Sixth Schedule vs Eighth Schedule – tribal languages need both autonomous governance and national recognition
• Implementation roadmap – detailed rules, amendment to 1980 Act, gradual adoption

Source/Reference:

https://indianexpress.com/article/india/meghalaya-official-languages-khasi-garo-ordinance-10640456/

Subject: Science & Tech – IndiaAI Mission; AI Startups; France Collaboration; Startup Financing.

Why in News?

• The IndiaAI Mission (under MeitY) announced 10 cutting-edge Indian AI startups for Cohort II of the IndiaAI Startups Global Acceleration Programme on April 17, 2026
• Selected startups span Health Tech, Climate Tech, EdTech, Satellite Intelligence, Cognitive AI and other domains

About the Programme

Initiating Body

• IndiaAI Mission, Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology (MeitY)
• Under its Startup Financing Pillar

International Partners

• Station F, Paris – world’s largest startup campus
• HEC Paris – one of Europe’s premier business schools

Objective

• Equip selected Indian AI startups with resources, expertise and strategic connections to scale internationally
• Aligns with India’s National AI Strategy emphasizing cross-border knowledge exchange and global market integration

Programme Structure

• 3-week online preparation module (India)
• 3-month immersive residency in Paris, France at Station F

IndiaAI Mission Context

Parent Initiative

• IndiaAI Mission – Government of India’s flagship program for AI development
• Encompasses seven pillars including:
  • IndiaAI Startup Financing (this programme falls under this pillar)
  • IndiaAI Innovation Centre
  • IndiaAI Datasets Platform
  • IndiaAI Compute Capacity
  • IndiaAI FutureSkills
  • IndiaAI Application Development
  • IndiaAI Ethics

Budget Allocation

• Total outlay: ₹10,372 crore (announced in 2024)
• Focus on building AI compute infrastructure, datasets, startup financing, and responsible AI

National AI Strategy

• Emphasizes cross-border knowledge exchange
• Aims to position India as a global leader in responsible, scalable and inclusive AI

Static-Dynamic Linkage

Static (Science & Technology / Economy Syllabus)

• MeitY: Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology – nodal ministry for AI policy
• IndiaAI Mission: Launched 2024; ₹10,372 crore over five years
• Startup Financing Pillar: One of seven pillars of IndiaAI Mission
• Station F: Located in Paris; launched 2017 by Xavier Niel (Iliad Group)
• HEC Paris: Founded 1881; consistently ranked among top European business schools

Dynamic (Current Affairs – 2026)

• Cohort II selection (April 17, 2026) – second batch of 10 startups
• First Cohort – selected in 2025; completed residency in Paris
• Diverse domains: Health Tech, Climate Tech, EdTech, Satellite Intelligence, Cognitive AI, Marketing Tech
• International collaboration: India-France AI partnership under broader strategic ties
• Global scale-up focus: Moving from domestic success to international markets

Source/Reference:

https://www.pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=2252858&reg=3&lang=1

Subject: Economy – Fisheries Sector; PMMSY; Blue Economy; Aquaculture; Seafood Exports.

Why in News?

• Union Fisheries Secretary reviewed the Bhimavaram Brackishwater Aquaculture Cluster (Andhra Pradesh) on April 16, 2026, one of India’s largest shrimp farming ecosystems notified under PMMSY 
• India’s seafood exports reached ₹68,000 crore in FY 2025-26, up from ₹62,408 crore in 2024-25 
• Government targets ₹1 lakh crore in fisheries exports over the next five years 

What is PMMSY?

Launch and Duration

• Launched: 2020 (under Atmanirbhar Bharat initiative)
• Period: 2020-21 to 2024-25 (extended)
• Total investment: ₹20,050 crore (Central share: ₹9,407 crore)

Implementing Agency

• Department of Fisheries, Ministry of Fisheries, Animal Husbandry and Dairying (MoFAH&D)
• Central Sector + Centrally Sponsored Scheme (umbrella scheme)

Key Objectives

• Increase fish production to 22 million metric tons by 2024-25
• Double fishers’ incomes and generate 55 lakh direct/indirect employment
• Double export earnings to ₹1,00,000 crore
• Reduce post-harvest losses from 20-25% to about 10%
• Enhance contribution to Agriculture GVA to about 9%

Key Achievements (2024-2026)

Production and Exports

• India is the second-largest fish producer globally (after China)
• Seafood exports: ₹68,000 crore in FY 2025-26 (approx. 10% growth)

Women Empowerment

• 60% enhanced financial assistance for women beneficiaries
• Odisha alone: 14,246 women beneficiaries availed benefits under PMMSY

Bhimavaram Brackishwater Cluster (Key Case Study)

Location and Scale

• West Godavari district, Andhra Pradesh
• Notified under PMMSY: March 11, 2025
• Area: 53,861 hectares with over 42,000 ponds

Production Focus

• Species: Penaeus vannamei (Pacific white shrimp) and Penaeus monodon (tiger shrimp)
• Productivity: 8 tonnes per hectare – significantly above national average
• Contributes around 15% of India’s total fish production but higher share of export earnings

Key Schemes and Sub-Components

PM-MKSSY (Pradhan Mantri Matsya Kisan Samridhi Sah-Yojana)

• Central Sector Sub-scheme under PMMSY (approved February 8, 2024)
• Outlay: ₹6,000 crore (FY 2023-24 to FY 2026-27)
• Focus: Formalization of fisheries sector, aquaculture insurance, value chain efficiencies, safety and quality assurance

Other Supporting Funds

• Fisheries Infrastructure Development Fund (FIDF): ₹7,500 crore corpus (through NABARD)
• Kisan Credit Card (KCC) for fishers under PMMKSSY

Key Institutions

Recent Policy Initiatives 

Sustainable Harnessing of Fisheries in the EEZ Rules, 2025

• Enables fishing beyond territorial waters with sustainability measures
• Implemented through Access Passes; priority to cooperative societies

Duty-Free Treatment

• Fish catch from EEZ and high seas treated as exports
• Duty-free import limit for seafood processing inputs increased from 1% to 3%

Key Challenges

• Weak market linkages – need to promote domestic consumption (suggested inclusion in government canteens, hospitals, mid-day meals)
• Seed quality regulation – need for pathogen-resistant broodstock
• Limited institutional credit access – request for income tax exemption on par with agriculture
• Feed costs – constitute nearly 70% of production costs
• Last-mile infrastructure – connectivity from farms to processing units
• Rising shipping tariffs affecting export competitiveness

Static-Dynamic Linkage

Static (Economy / Agriculture Syllabus)

• Blue Economy: Sustainable use of ocean resources for economic growth
• EEZ: India’s EEZ ~2.37 million sq km
• ICAR fisheries institutes: CIBA (Chennai), CMFRI (Kochi), CIFE (Mumbai), CIFRI (Kolkata)
• Constitutional basis: Fisheries is a State subject (Entry 21, List II – State List)

Dynamic (Current Affairs – 2026)

• Bhimavaram cluster review (April 16, 2026) – focus on technology adoption and export linkages
• Seafood exports at ₹68,000 crore – target of ₹1 lakh crore
• EEZ Rules, 2025 – new framework for deep-sea fishing
• Women empowerment: 60% assistance under PMMSY

Source/Reference:

https://www.pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=2252597&reg=3&lang=1

Subject: Economy – Handloom Sector; Art & Culture – Indian Weaves; Government Schemes

Why in News?

• The Office of the Development Commissioner for Handlooms (Ministry of Textiles) has collaborated with Femina Miss India platform for the first time
• Thematic initiative: “Vishwa Sutra – Weaves of India for the World”
• Exclusive handloom collection to be unveiled during the grand finale of Femina Miss India

Key Features of the Initiative

State/UT Winners Participation

• Each State and UT winner will showcase a handloom ensemble inspired by their region’s weaving tradition
• Each ensemble creatively interpreted to reflect the cultural aesthetics of a selected country
• Symbolically connects India’s textile heritage with global fashion narratives

Featured Indian Weaves

• Varanasi Brocade, Lepcha, Kanchipuram, Kota Doria, Maheshwari, Patola, Ikat, Kasavu, Paithani, Phulkari, Jamdani, Kullu Shawl, Uppada, Khunn, Pashmina, Muga Silk, Ilkal and others

India’s Handloom Sector: Key Statistics

Scale and Livelihoods

• One of the world’s richest handloom traditions
• Provides sustainable livelihoods to over 35 lakh weavers and allied workers (after agriculture)

Market Trends

• Growing demand for eco-friendly products has renewed interest in handloom textiles in domestic and international markets

Policy Framework

Government Vision

• “Vocal for Local to Global” – transforming traditional industries into globally competitive sectors

Prime Minister’s 5F Framework

• Farm → Fibre → Factory → Fashion → Foreign
• Encompasses entire textile value chain from raw material to exports

Orange Economy

• Economic activities related to culture, art, creativity and heritage
• Promoted under Government’s cultural entrepreneurship vision

Selected Indian Handloom Traditions (Quick Revision)

Static-Dynamic Linkage

Static (Economy / Art & Culture Syllabus)

• Ministry of Textiles: Nodal ministry for textile and handloom sector
• Development Commissioner (Handlooms): Established 1976 under Ministry of Textiles
• Handloom (Reservation of Articles for Production) Act, 1985: Protects handloom weavers
• Handloom Mark: Certification for genuine handloom products (2006)
• GI (Geographical Indication) tag: Protects region-specific handloom products (e.g., Banarasi saree, Pashmina, Muga Silk)

Dynamic (Current Affairs – 2026)

• First-time collaboration between handloom sector and mainstream fashion pageant
• Vishwa Sutra initiative – bridging local weaves with global fashion narratives
• Orange Economy promotion – cultural industries as economic growth drivers
• Youth connect – engaging younger audiences through fashion platforms

Source/Reference:

https://www.pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=2252691&reg=3&lang=1

UPSC Mains Subject: GS Paper III – Economy (Industrial Policy) | GS Paper III – Disaster Management | GS Paper IV – Ethics
Sub-topic: Industrial Safety; Regulatory Framework; Labour Protection; Occupational Health

Introduction

The boiler explosion in Sakti, which killed 20 people, reflects systemic safety failures rather than sudden malfunction. Like the Visakhapatnam gas leak and Neyveli thermal power station blast, it points to inactive safety systems, unstable restarts, and poor risk monitoring. 

India’s regulatory focus on fabrication and self-certification—rather than continuous instrumentation and real-time audits—leaves critical gaps. With ageing infrastructure and vulnerable contract labour, industrial “accidents” can no longer be treated as routine costs of growth.

Main Body

The Engineering Reality: Risks That Build Over Time

Boiler Failure Causes:

• Overpressure
• Scaling (deposit buildup on internal surfaces)
• Mismanaged water level
• Revival stress (during restart after shutdown)

Key Insight: Boilers almost never fail suddenly. Risks accumulate over time.

Common Thread in Recent Disasters:

• Sakti (Chhattisgarh): Recently acquired, recently commissioned, operating below full capacity
• Visakhapatnam (2020): Safety systems inactive or uncalibrated after post-lockdown restart
• Neyveli (2020): Plant restart process triggered explosion

Unstable Operating Regimes:

• Failures result from transient thermal and pressure imbalances
• Yet neither national boiler inspection nor regulatory framework heightens oversight during these phases

Regulatory Framework: Flaws and Gaps

Certification Validity:

• Valid for up to one year
• But boiler conditions vary on a daily basis

Perverse Incentives:

• Current structure penalises downtime (lost production)
• Does not penalise unsafe operations
• Does not reward maintenance shutdowns

Focus on Fabrication, Not Continuous Monitoring:

• Framework focuses on fabrication standards (how boiler was built)
• Neglects continuous instrumentation and auditing (how boiler is operated)

‘Ease of Doing Business’ Consequences:

• Self-certification favoured over government inspection
• Scheduled third-party audits replace surprise inspections

New Rules:

• Boiler Accident Inquiry Rules notified in 2025
• Whether they address structural gaps remains to be seen

Expanding Industrial Capacity, Ageing Infrastructure

The Pressure Builds:

• Industrial capacity expanding rapidly
• Ageing infrastructure pushed harder
• More plants operating closer to their limits

Flaws Exposed:

• Management failures now receive more media coverage and political attention
• But hazards likely existed for years
• Crises are not altogether accidental—they are the result of accumulated neglect

Labour Vulnerability: Contract Workers Most Exposed

Who Is at Risk:

• Growing share of workers are migrants hired via subcontractors
• Contract labour most exposed to hazardous conditions

The Blame Game:

• Operator and subcontractor trade blame after a disaster
• No clear accountability

Language Barriers:

• Safety signage and manuals often unavailable in workers’ native languages
• Investigators report workers in Pune industrial belt (since 2021), Sangareddy (2024, 2025) unaware of names and properties of chemicals in their workplace

The OSHW Code 2020 Gap:

• Occupational Safety, Health and Working Conditions Code, 2020
• Does not clearly hold principal employer criminally liable for safety lapses in contractors’ operations
• Qualifies liability on employer’s negligence (high burden of proof)

The Culture of Absorbing ‘Accidents’

Old Complaints:

• These are old complaints about how India treats its labour
• Workers bear the risk; firms bear the profit

What Must Change:

• Firms’ incentives (downtime penalised, unsafe operation not penalised)
• Regulators’ incentives (self-certification over inspection)
• Labour arrangements (contractor-worker-operator triangle of blame)
• Factory-floor practices (safety signage in native languages, chemical awareness)

The Cost of Doing Business:

• Until this culture is dismantled, ‘accidents’ will continue to be absorbed as cost of doing business

Way Forward

For Regulators:

• Shift focus from fabrication standards to continuous instrumentation and auditing
• Replace self-certification with surprise government inspections
• Restructure incentives: penalise unsafe operations, reward maintenance shutdowns
• Evaluate and strengthen Boiler Accident Inquiry Rules, 2025

For Firms:

• Implement real-time boiler condition monitoring
• Ensure safety signage and manuals in workers’ native languages
• Train contract workers on chemical names, properties, and hazards

For Legislation:

• Amend OSHW Code 2020 to hold principal employer criminally liable for safety lapses in contractors’ operations
• Remove the ‘negligence’ qualification (high burden of proof)

For Labour Protection:

• Ban contract labour arrangements that diffuse accountability
• Ensure direct employer liability regardless of subcontracting

Conclusion

The boiler explosion in Sakti, killing 20, reflects accumulated risks—overpressure, scaling, poor water management, and unsafe restarts—compounded by weak regulation. Annual certification, self-certification, and poor monitoring create perverse incentives where downtime is punished but unsafe operations persist. 

Contract labour remains most vulnerable, with limited accountability under the Occupational Safety, Health and Working Conditions Code. These are not accidents but predictable outcomes of systemic neglect—without reform, another Sakti is inevitable.

UPSC Mains Practice Question

1. Industrial disasters reflect systemic failures rather than isolated mishaps. Critically examine the engineering, regulatory, and labour-related causes behind such incidents in India, and suggest reforms to end the normalization of industrial “accidents” as a cost of growth. (250 words, 15 marks)

https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/editorial/article70870754.ece

UPSC Mains Subject: GS Paper II – Polity & Governance (Judiciary) | GS Paper IV – Ethics
Sub-topic: Judicial Reforms; Pendency; Access to Justice; Legal Aid; Judicial Independence

Introduction

With over five crore pending cases, India’s judicial system has made “justice delayed is justice denied” a lived reality. For ordinary citizens, legal processes are slow, costly, and exhausting—where “the process itself becomes punishment.” Judicial reform is no longer a sectoral issue but a human rights imperative, requiring a fundamental overhaul of how justice is delivered.

Main Body

The Weight of Pendency

The Scale:

• Over five crore cases pending across Indian courts
• System has become its own worst enemy

The Consequence:

• Emboldens the lawbreaker
• Exhausts the law-abiding
• A land dispute taking 20 years: winner often finds victory hollow, having spent more on legal fees than the property was worth

The Human Cost:

• Individuals charged with grave offences, eventually acquitted, find their lives in ruins
• Prime years spent behind bars without compensation
• “The process is the punishment”

Procedural Bottlenecks and Adjournment Culture

The Cycle:

• Frequent, often frivolous adjournments
• Gravitational pull keeping cases in limbo for decades
• Strips accused of dignity, livelihood, and social standing long before verdict

UAPA Detainees:

• Those charged under Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act languish in overcrowded prisons without trial
• Prima facie evidence standard makes incarceration the rule, not the exception
• Need for mandatory guidelines fixing firm timeline (1-2 years) for trial commencement or bail

The Digital Revolution: From Colonial-Era Courts to 21st Century

The Problem:

• Courts operate as if frozen in colonial era
• Reliant on mountains of physical files
• Personal presence of litigants travelling hundreds of miles just to hear a new hearing date

The Solution:

• AI and data-driven case management as necessary tools, not luxuries
• AI handling routine administrative filing, flagging delays, assisting in legal research
• Allows judges to focus cognitive energy on the heart of the matter

Inclusivity and Accessibility: Beyond Speed

Composition of the Bench:

• Judiciary criticised as insular “old boys’ club”
• Glass ceiling for women and marginalised communities remains intact
• Too many judges being relatives of earlier generations

Why Representation Matters:

• Not identity politics—judicial quality
• Bench that understands lived realities delivers more nuanced and empathetic rulings
• Woman or person from historically oppressed community brings perspective that enriches the law

Affordability:

• Justice is a luxury good
• Cost of competent counsel and incidental expenses price out significant portion of population

Legal Aid Overhaul:

• Transform legal aid into high-calibre institution
• Offer poor comparable quality of representation available to rich
• If state can provide food and education, it must also provide means to defend life and liberty

Geographical Centralisation:

• Litigant from south India travelling to capital for final appeal is unnecessary burden
• Need for Regional Benches or robust system of virtual hearings for Supreme Court

Judicial Independence and Accountability

Independence:

• Judiciary must act as fearless referee
• Hold powerful to account without blinking
• Bedrock of functioning democracy

Accountability:

• Independence not confused with lack of accountability
• Live-streaming of important cases
• Clearer criteria for judicial appointments
• Rebuild ‘social contract’ with the people

A Systemic Overhaul, Not Incremental Adjustments

National Emergency:

• Stop treating judicial reform as small, incremental adjustments
• Current state is slow-motion catastrophe eroding rule of law

Cultural Shift:

• Move away from adversarial culture (every disagreement as battle to the death)
• Toward culture of resolution

Judges and Profession:

• Judges comfortable with computer screen as with law book
• Legal profession that values closing of case more than prolongation of fee

Way Forward

Immediate:

• Fix firm timelines (1-2 years) for trial commencement or bail under UAPA
• Live-stream important cases
• Implement AI-based case management for routine administrative filing

Medium-Term:

• Establish Regional Benches of Supreme Court
• Overhaul legal aid into high-calibre institution
• Break judicial “old boys’ club” through transparent appointment criteria

Long-Term:

• Shift from adversarial culture to resolution culture
• Ensure Bench represents India’s diverse tapestry
• Make virtual hearings standard, not exception

Conclusion

With over five crore pending cases, India’s justice system has turned into an endurance test where “the process is the punishment.” Delays, undertrial detention, and costly litigation demand more than incremental fixes. A real overhaul—combining digital tools, inclusivity, and accountability—is essential. The true test of Viksit Bharat 2047 will be timely justice, not just economic growth.

UPSC Mains Practice Question

1. India’s justice system is marked by chronic delays that make litigation an endurance test. Critically examine the causes of judicial pendency and suggest technological, structural, and cultural reforms to ensure timely and accessible justice. (250 words, 15 marks)

https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/lead/the-institutionalised-sluggishness-of-the-legal-system/article70870756.ece