Category: ECONOMICS

Context:  The Gini Index ranked India among the world’s more equal societies

• It fails to capture ground-level realities of urban-rural, gender, wealth, and digital inequalities.
• Its methodology overlooks informal sector employment, access disparities, and social norms that perpetuate inequality.

Forms of Inequality in India:

1. Wealth Inequality:

• A small fraction holds most of the nation’s wealth.
• The top 10% own a disproportionate share of income.
• Informal jobs and non-taxable income make wealth inequality hard to quantify.

2. Gender Inequality:

• Women make up only 35.9% of the workforce.
• Only 12.7% of leadership roles are held by women.
• Startups founded by women are just 7.5% of the total.
• Patriarchal norms result in fewer resources for girl children and less inheritance.

3. Digital Inequality:

• Only 53.9% of schools have Internet, and 52.7% have functional computers.
• Only 25% of rural women vs 49% of rural men have internet access.
• School closures during pollution seasons show how unequal internet access affects education.

Learning Corner:

Gini Coefficient

The Gini Coefficient (or Gini Index) is a statistical measure of income or wealth inequality within a population.

Definition:

• It ranges from 0 to 1 (or 0% to 100%):
  • 0 represents perfect equality (everyone has the same income).
  • 1 represents perfect inequality (one person has all the income, others have none).

How It’s Measured:

• Based on the Lorenz Curve, which plots the cumulative share of income against the cumulative share of the population.
• The Gini Coefficient is the ratio of the area between the line of equality and the Lorenz curve to the total area under the line of equality.

Applications:

• Used globally by economists, policymakers, and institutions like the World Bank and UNDP to assess income distribution.
• Helps compare inequality across countries or over time.

Limitations:

• Does not capture non-income inequalities (e.g., gender, digital access).
• Insensitive to the location of inequality (whether at the top or bottom of the income scale).
• Similar Gini scores may mask very different economic structures.

Source: THE HINDU

Category: POLITY

Context: Launched in 2024-25, this mission aims to make India self-reliant in oilseed and edible oil production by 2030-31

Key Objectives:

• Achieve self-sufficiency in key oilseeds like mustard, soybean, groundnut, sunflower, sesame, and others.
• Enhance research in high-yield, climate-resilient varieties.
• Promote modern farming practices and digital technologies.
• Provide financial incentives and input subsidies.
• Strengthen post-harvest management, market linkages, and processing infrastructure.
• Expand crop insurance coverage.
• Boost secondary oil extraction from sources like rice bran, cottonseed, and tree-borne oilseeds.

Implementation & Targets:

• Duration: 2024-25 to 2030-31
• Budget: ₹10,103 crore
• Target: Raise oilseed production from 39 to 69.7 million tonnes
• Goal: Meet 72% of projected domestic edible oil demand

Support Measures:

• Launch of SATHI portal for seed supply coordination.
• Increased MSP and schemes like PM-AASHA to ensure fair pricing.
• Higher import duties to protect domestic producers.
• Emphasis on environmental sustainability and rural employment.

Learning Corner:

Oilseeds Production in India:

• India is one of the largest producers of oilseeds globally but remains a net importer of edible oils, meeting over 50% of its domestic demand through imports.
• Major oilseeds grown include:
  • Groundnut, Soybean, Mustard/Rapeseed, Sunflower, Sesame, Linseed, Niger, Safflower, and Castor.
• Cultivated mainly in rain-fed areas; productivity is often lower due to climate variability, low input use, and limited irrigation.

Key Government Schemes:

National Mission on Edible Oils – Oilseeds (NMEO–Oilseeds) (2024–25 to 2030–31)

• Aims to make India self-reliant in edible oils.
• Targets to increase oilseeds production to 69.7 million tonnes by 2030–31.
• Key components:
  • High-yielding seeds, climate-resilient varieties
  • Financial incentives, input subsidies
  • Crop insurance, SATHI portal for seed coordination
  • Post-harvest management and value addition
  • Focus on both primary and secondary sources (e.g., rice bran, cottonseed)

National Food Security Mission (NFSM – Oilseeds & Oil Palm)

• Promotes productivity and area expansion for oilseed crops.
• Provides financial support for inputs, training, and cluster demonstrations.

Price Support Scheme (PSS)

• Under PM-AASHA, ensures Minimum Support Price (MSP) procurement for oilseeds by government agencies.

Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana (RKVY)

• A flexible scheme to fund state-led initiatives, including support for oilseeds based on local needs.

Source:  PIB

Category: GEOGRAPHY

Context : Ladakh’s hot springs and the origin of life

Why They Matter:

• Unique Carbonate Chemistry: Unlike global focus on silica, Ladakh’s hot springs (notably in Puga Valley) show rapid calcium carbonate (travertine) formation, which preserves organic molecules like amino acids and fatty acids—key to prebiotic chemistry.
• Natural Laboratory: These springs offer a real-world setting resembling early Earth, ideal for studying how life might have formed.

Extremophile Insights:

• Harsh conditions (UV radiation, temperature extremes) mirror early Earth and Mars.
• Microbes here produce protective substances, offering clues to how life adapts and survives in extreme environments.

Astrobiological Significance:

• Mars Analog: Similarities to Martian hydrothermal systems make Ladakh valuable for space science.
• Biomarker Clues: Helps identify where and how to search for biosignatures on Mars, guiding missions by ISRO and NASA.

Key Takeaways:

• Carbonates are crucial for preserving life’s building blocks.
• Supports new directions in astrobiology, synthetic biology, and Mars exploration.
• Strengthens India’s contribution to the search for life beyond Earth.

Learning Corner:

Hot Springs:

• Definition: A hot spring is a natural discharge of geothermally heated groundwater at the Earth’s surface.
• Formed when groundwater seeps deep into the Earth, gets heated by magma or hot rocks, and rises back to the surface.
• Temperatures can vary — from lukewarm to boiling.
• Found in tectonically active regions, especially volcanic zones.
• Notable Indian examples:
  • Manikaran (Himachal Pradesh)
  • Tapovan (Uttarakhand)
  • Bakreshwar (West Bengal)

Geysers:

• A geyser is a special type of hot spring that erupts periodically, shooting steam and hot water into the air.
• Occur when pressure builds in underground chambers filled with boiling water and steam.
• Require:
  • Intense geothermal heat
  • Abundant groundwater
  • A unique plumbing system with narrow conduits
• Much rarer than hot springs.
• Famous geysers:
  • Old Faithful in Yellowstone National Park (USA)
  • El Tatio in Chile
• No significant true geysers in India.

Geological Importance:

• Indicators of geothermal energy potential
• Support unique microbial ecosystems
• Sites of tourism and religious importance

Source:  PIB

Category: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Context Pralay missile and its recent tests

Key Highlights

• Conducted from Dr APJ Abdul Kalam Island, Odisha.
• Aimed at validating both maximum (500 km) and minimum (150 km) range.
• Achieved pinpoint accuracy with all subsystems performing as intended.

Technical Features:

• Type: Solid-fuel, quasi-ballistic, surface-to-surface missile.
• Range: 150–500 km.
• Payload: Conventional warheads (350–1,000 kg).
• Guidance: Advanced navigation and mid-course maneuverability to evade missile defenses.

Operational Utility:

• Targets include command centres, airbases, and logistic hubs.
• Offers a strategic edge through high mobility and tactical precision.
• Strengthens India’s conventional deterrence posture, especially against regional threats.

Development & Induction:

• Designed by Research Centre Imarat (DRDO) with Indian industry collaboration.
• Twin tests mark completion of Phase-1 trials, paving the way for military induction.

Learning Corner:

 Indian Missiles Comparable to Pralay:

Foreign Missiles Similar to Pralay:

Source: THE HINDU

Category: ENVIRONMENT

Context: Kaziranga Tiger Reserve: 3rd Highest Tiger Density in India (2024)

Key Stats:

• Tiger Density: 18.65 tigers per 100 sq km (3rd in India)
• Tiger Population: 148 tigers in 1,307 sq km
• Increase from 2022: Up from 104 tigers, due to the inclusion of the Biswanath Wildlife Division (added 27 tigers)

Top Three Tiger Densities (2024):

1. Bandipur (Karnataka): 19.83 tigers/100 sq km
2. Corbett (Uttarakhand): 19.56 tigers/100 sq km
3. Kaziranga (Assam): 18.65 tigers/100 sq km

Why It Matters:

• Advanced camera traps and spatial analysis ensured accurate estimates.
• Highlights success in habitat protection, landscape connectivity, and anti-poaching efforts.
• Reflects the effectiveness of conservation policies under the National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA).

Learning Corner:

Kaziranga National Park

Overview:

• Location: Assam, India (spanning Golaghat, Nagaon, and Karbi Anglong districts)
• Established: 1905 (as a reserve forest), declared a National Park in 1974
• UNESCO World Heritage Site: Since 1985

Key Highlights:

Ecological Importance:

• Acts as a critical biodiversity hotspot in the Eastern Himalayan foothills.
• Important for floodplain ecosystem conservation.
• One of the few areas in the world where multiple mega herbivores (rhino, elephant, buffalo) coexist naturally.

Source: THE HINDU

Introduction (Context)

Recently, over 271 girls were rescued in Bihar, 153 of them trafficked into orchestras, the remaining 118 forced into the flesh trade.

The Patna High Court took cognizance of the issue and directed the Bihar Government to act urgently to ban employment of minors in such orchestras.

The incident sheds light on systemic child trafficking driven by poverty, lack of regulation, and socio-cultural exploitation.

What is Child Trafficking?

As per the UN Palermo Protocol, child trafficking involves the recruitment, transportation, transfer, harboring, or receipt of children for exploitation, including forced labour, sexual abuse, and slavery.

Common forms of child trafficking

Vulnerable children may be exposed to many different forms of exploitation, including:

• Sexual exploitation: This can include abusing children for commercial sexual exploitation or the production of child sexual abuse material.
• Forced labour: When children work under harsh conditions in various sectors, including agriculture, factories, mining or as domestic workers.
• Begging and petty crimes: Putting children to beg on streets or commit other crimes, such as theft.
• Children in armed conflict: Children are recruited as fighters, sexually exploited, or kept in domestic servitude during a conflict.
• Child marriage: Girls are married off to third parties for money or social status, often as part of harmful traditional practices.
• Illegal adoption: Trafficking babies and children for illegal adoption for their exploitation, often through deception or coercion of their parents or guardians.

Sometimes victims of child trafficking are exposed to multiple forms of exploitation at once. For example, a child made to beg on the streets may also be exploited sexually.

Data:

According to the National Crime Record Bureau report the number of victims rescued (below 18 years) during the last five years are given below:

Many cases never reach a police station because families are either complicit or fear to speak

How do children become vulnerable to exploitation?

• Child trafficking thrives in environments of family dysfunction, lack of parental care, poverty, inequality and inadequate child protection.
• Traffickers often target children from extremely poor households or those who have been abandoned.
•  Conflict, economic challenges and environmental disasters make children, especially unaccompanied and separated migrant children, increasingly vulnerable to trafficking.
• Traffickers also use online platforms, social media and the dark web to approach, exploit and control children, taking advantage of modern technology to evade detection and disseminate exploitative content. Unsupervised use of the internet and social media by children, often without appropriate safeguards, can further expose them to traffickers

Why has Bihar become a Trafficking Destination?

Absence of Regulation and Oversight

• No strict regulatory framework exists to monitor orchestra groups or dance troupes.
• Law enforcement agencies fail to identify and dismantle trafficking fronts.
• Lack of local-level monitoring enables trafficking networks to thrive.

Geography

•  The State’s porous border with Nepal and seamless railway connectivity to trafficking-prone States such as West Bengal, Jharkhand, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, Assam and Uttar Pradesh facilitate trafficking flows through Bihar.

Exploiting Cultural Aspirations

• In states like West Bengal, music and dance are valued pursuits.
• Traffickers exploit these aspirations by dance training, stage careers, or film opportunities convincing parents of assured income and fame.

Presence of ‘orchestra belt’ 

• In districts such as Saran, Gopalganj, Muzaffarpur, Rohtas and West Champaran — the ‘orchestra belt’ — girls, some as young as 12, are being sold to orchestras for as little a sum as ₹10,000. 
• They are forced to wear inappropriate clothing and dance to vulgar songs before inebriated men. 

How does child trafficking affect victims and society?

This crime has devastating consequences for the physical, cognitive and socio-emotional development of children. 

• Victims often suffer lifelong health issues, severe trauma-related disorders, anxiety, depression and difficulties in social integration. 
• Child trafficking undermines healthy societal structures and perpetuates cycles of poverty and exploitation. 
• It destroys childhood and can trap trafficked children in a cycle of violence and exploitation when they become parents themselves; it disrupts education and hinders community development. 

Laws against child trafficking and issues

1. The Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act, 1956 (ITPA

• Enacted to prevent and combat trafficking for commercial sexual exploitation
• Criminalises activities such as running brothels, procuring or detaining persons for prostitution, especially minors.
• Provides powers to law enforcement to rescue victims and rehabilitate them.

2.The Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act, 2015

• Focuses on the care, protection, and rehabilitation of children in conflict with law or in need of care.
•  Includes provisions to tackle child trafficking, abuse, and neglect.
•  Establishes Child Welfare Committees and Juvenile Justice Boards for case handling.

3.The Protection of Children from Sexual Offences (POCSO) Act, 2012

• A comprehensive law to protect children from sexual abuse, assault, and pornography.
•  Provides child-friendly procedures for reporting, recording, and trial of offences.
•  Defines a child as anyone below 18 years and prescribes stringent punishments.

4.The Bonded Labour System (Abolition) Act, 1976

• Abolishes all forms of bonded and forced labour, including child bondage.
• Declares any agreement leading to bonded labour null and void.
• Empowers district magistrates to free and rehabilitate bonded labourers.

5.The Child and Adolescent Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Act, 1986 (Amended 2016)

• Prohibits employment of children below 14 years in any occupation and adolescents (14–18 years) in hazardous processes.
• Allows work only in family enterprises under specific conditions.
•  Prescribes penalties for employers and mechanisms for enforcement.

6.Provisions under the Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita (BNS), 2023

• Replaces the Indian Penal Code (IPC) and includes offences related to child trafficking, forced labour, and sexual exploitation.
• Provides for enhanced punishment for trafficking of minors and repeated offenders.
• Emphasises victim-centric justice through stricter procedural safeguards.

7. Lacunaes

• Laws are comprehensive but poorly enforced
• Conviction rates remain low
• Most cases filed as “missing persons” or “kidnapping”
• Anti-Human Trafficking Units (AHTUs) underfunded
• Investigations that concern multiple States often collapse due to jurisdictional confusion and bureaucratic delay. 
• When girls are rescued, many are sent right back to the same families that sold them.

Key Measures for Prevention and Enforcement of Anti-Trafficking Efforts

1.School and Community-Based Prevention

• Schools must monitor student attendance consistently.
• If a child is absent for an extended period, it should trigger alerts and mandatory reporting
• Panchayats must maintain migration registers to track children leaving or arriving in villages.
• Parental sensitisation programs are essential to inform families about the dangers of trafficking.

2.Strengthening Transport Vigilance

• Railway Protection Force (RPF) should continue to monitor vulnerable corridors and conduct awareness campaigns at stations.
• This model must extend to inter-State bus routes, local terminals and private carriers. 
• Transport department staff should be trained to spot signs of trafficking and report suspicious activity.

3.Reforming Anti-Human Trafficking Units (AHTUs)

• This model must extend to inter-State bus routes, local terminals and private carriers. Transport departments must train their staff to identify signs of trafficking.

4.Strengthening Labour and Justice Mechanisms

• The Labour Department must be mandated to inspect, report and act.
• Prosecution must be time-bound and rehabilitation must be long-term and state-supervised. 
• Children must not be sent back to the environments that enabled their exploitation. 
• Victim compensation schemes must be activated and implemented without delay.

Steps Towards Prevention: The “PICKET” Strategy

A comprehensive approach to eliminate child trafficking:

• P – Policy: Clear, zero-tolerance policies against child exploitation.
• I – Institutions: Dedicated units to monitor, prosecute and rehabilitate
• C – Convergence: Inter-agency cooperation with shared digital data.
• K – Knowledge: Grassroots awareness and survivor-informed intelligence.
• E – Economy: Make trafficking financially unviable through seizure and penalties.
• T – Technology: Use AI, heatmaps, tracking software to detect patterns and routes.

Mains Practice Question

Q Child trafficking in India is not merely a law and order problem, but a systemic failure of socio-economic, cultural and governance structures. Suggest a multipronged strategy to address the crisis. (250 words, 15 marks)

Source: https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/lead/bihars-dark-side-the-hub-of-girl-child-trafficking/article69870523.ece

Introduction (Context)

In recent decades, India’s formal manufacturing sector has witnessed a significant negative change in its employment structure. 

According to the Annual Surveys of Industries (ASI), the share of contract labour in the manufacturing workforce doubled from 20% in 1999-2000 to 40.7% in 2022-23, cutting across all industries. 

Contractualisation is detrimental to productivity when misused, highlighting the need to promote formalisation to sustain long-term productivity growth.

What are Contractual jobs?

• Contractual jobs involve working for a specific period or on a project basis, as defined by a contract between the employer and the employee. 
• These jobs can be full-time or part-time, and their duration can vary significantly. 
• Contractual work offers flexibility for both employers and employees, allowing them to address specific needs or projects without long-term commitments. 

Issues of contract labours

The primary motivation behind contractualisation is not to enhance skills or adaptability but to reduce labour costs and bypass legal obligations under core labour laws.

Contract labourers in India face numerous challenges, including unequal pay, job insecurity, lack of social security benefits, and vulnerability to exploitation. 

These issues stem from a combination of factors such as weak implementation of labor laws, lack of awareness among workers, and the inherent nature of contract employment, which often prioritizes flexibility over worker welfare. 

Some issues are discussed below:

• Contract workers earn on average 14.5% less than regular workers. The wage gap widens to 31% in large enterprises, indicating systemic exploitation. In some industries, employers spend 50–85% less on contract labour compared to regular employees.
• Being hired through contractors, these workers often fall outside the ambit of key protections under laws like the Industrial Disputes Act, making them more vulnerable to unfair dismissals and poor working conditions.
• Short-term contracts lead to high labour turnover and discourage investment in skill development or on-the-job training, harming both the workers’ long-term employability and firm-level innovation.

Impact on Productivity

Contract workers are hired for specific roles or durations and help firms remain flexible, especially in volatile markets. They allow quick scaling up or down of operations without long-term commitments.

However, long term impacts are:

• Principal-Agent Problem refers to the misalignment of goals between two parties (in this case, the employer (principal) and the contractor (agent)). Contractors may prioritize their own profits over the employer’s quality standards, leading to poor supervision and inefficient labour use.
• In contract work, workers may shirk responsibilities leading to moral hazard, knowing that accountability is diffused between the employer and the contractor.
• Contractual jobs are usually short-term, leading to high turnover rates. This deters employers from investing in skill development or innovation, negatively affecting long-term productivity.
• Labour productivity (measured as real net value added per worker) is 31% lower in Contract Labour-Intensive (CLI) enterprises compared to Regular Labour-Intensive (RLI) enterprises.
• In small enterprises (less than 100 workers), the gap widens to 36%, due to greater dependence on contract workers
• Medium enterprises (100–300 workers) show a 23% gap, while labour-intensive sectors face the worst—a 42% productivity deficit.
• Capital-Intensive CLI Enterprises: Capital-intensive firms rely more on machines than human labour. In such firms, contract workers may still be productive because they’re used in supportive roles. These firms show a 17% productivity gain, but they form only 20% of formal manufacturing.
• Despite a few exceptions, 80% of formal enterprises suffer due to excessive contractualisation. This undermines productivity, job security, and economic growth in the long run.

Steps Needed

Implement Labour Code on Industrial Relations (2020)

• The central government, in 2020, introduced a labour code on industrial relations, which aims to provide greater flexibility in hiring and firing. The code allows firms to hire non-regular workers on fixed-term contracts directly without third party contractors, though it also seeks to curb the exploitation of non-permanent workers by mandating the provision of basic statutory employment benefits. 
• However, as the labour code awaits implementation, labour unions warn that the increased flexibility in hiring non-regular workers could accelerate informalisation and further erode quality of jobs in the formal sector.

Incentivising Longer Fixed-Term Contracts:

• Policymakers could offer concessions in social security contributions to firms adopting longer-duration contracts.
• Could also provide subsidised access to government skilling programs to firms.
• This would promote workforce stability, skill development, and address union concerns over precarious employment.
  

Pradhan Mantri Rojgar Protsahan Yojana (PMRPY):

• Launched in 2016 to promote formal job creation in manufacturing.
• Government paid the employer’s 12% contribution to EPS and EPF for new employees.
• Benefited over 1 crore workers before being discontinued in March 2022.
• Revive and extend the scheme to encourage formalisation and reduce reliance on contract labour in the formal sector.

Value Addition: Laws Governing Contractual Labour in India

• Contract Labour (Regulation and Abolition) Act, 1970: Regulates the employment of contract labour and seeks its abolition in certain cases. Ensures basic welfare provisions like canteen, first-aid, and wages but implementation is weak.
• Code on Industrial Relations, 2020 (yet to be fully implemented): Allows for fixed-term employment directly by employers and mandates social security benefits for non-permanent workers, attempting to formalise contract roles without third-party contractors.
• Factories Act, 1948 and Minimum Wages Act, 1948 apply to all workers including contractual ones, but enforcement remains inadequate.
• Building and Other Construction Workers Act offers some safeguards for contract workers in construction.

Conclusion

Contractual labour, if used strategically in high-skill sectors with safeguards, can contribute to industrial flexibility. However, its overuse as a cost-cutting tool in labour-intensive sectors is counterproductive. 

To ensure inclusive growth and long-term productivity, India must shift from exploitative informalisation to genuine formalisation.

Mains Practice Question

Q “The increasing contractualisation of labour in India’s formal manufacturing sector undermines both workers’ welfare and industrial productivity.” Critically examine. (250 words, 15 marks)

Source: https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/adopt-formalisation-to-power-productivity-growth/article69870561.ece