60 Days Plan: UPSC IAS Prelims 2019- History and Current Affairs (Day 43)

Burial Practices:

• Cemeteries excavated at several Indus sites like Mohenjodaro, Harappa, Kalibangan, Lothal and Ropar throws light on the burial practices of the Harappans.
• Three forms of burials have been found at Mohenjo-Daro, viz.,
• Complete burials, (means the burial of the whole body along with the grave goods) fractional burials, (burial of some bones after the exposure of the body to wild beasts and birds) and post-cremation burials.
• From the Lothal cemetery comes evidence of another burial type with several examples of pairs of skeletons, one male and one female in each case, buried in a single grave. Bodies were always placed in the north-south direction with the head in the north.

• Bronze casting was a widespread practice during the Indus Valley Civilization, particularly at Harappa. Bronze statues were made by the “lost wax technique”.
• This practice is still prevalent in many parts of the country particularly the Himachal Pradesh, Odisha, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh and West Bengal.
• In each region, a slightly different technique is used. Under this technique, the bee wax is first melted over an open fire and then strained through a fine cloth into cold water.
• The bee wax immediately solidifies and it is now passed thru a pharni, so that the wax comes out of it in the shape of noodle like wires. These wax wires are now used to make a shape of the entire image first.
• After that, this image is covered with a paste of clay, and other materials such as cow dung. On one side, an opening is kept. When it becomes dry, the wax was heated and the molten wax was drained out through a tiny hole.
• The hollow mould thus created was filled with molten metal which took the original shape of the object.

• The common features of all the Indus valley civilizations are as follows:
• A common script which remains undeciphered so far.
• Proper Town planning in all Indus valleys cites except few such as Kalibangan. Presence of cooking area, water reservoir in houses.
• Presence of a fortified citadel in almost all urban centres.
• Presence of residential and non-residential buildings. Absence of temples of special places of worship except few altars at some sites.
• Use of standard weights and measurements
• Pottery of wheels and bead making industries
• Practice of burying the dead.

Parts of stupas

• Anda: is the hemispherical dome
• Harmika: Top of dome is “Harmika”, square balcony in decorative form enclosing a pedestal
• Chattra: A 3 tiered stone/ wooden umbrella chhatrayasti raised over pedestal which was the vedica alter of sacrifice and represented the village shrine.
• Vedica: Stupa is enclosed with a wooden/stone railing called vedica
• Toranas: They were ceremonial gateway placed at cardial point similar to Aryan Village gates.
• Medhi: Medhi (pedestrian path) for devotees to wave in homage to stupa. Medhi was approached by double staircase sopana.

• Bhumisparsha Mudra The bhumisparsha Buddha is always depicted in a seated position, with the right hand resting on the knee and fingers pointing towards the earth. Buddha became enlightened underneath the Bodhi tree.
• Dhyana Mudra The dhyana Buddha statue shows both hands resting in the lap. The back of the right hand is leaning on the palm of the left hand. The Buddha used this gesture during his final meditation under the Bodhi tree when he attained enlightenment.
• Abhaya Mudra The abhaya gesture shows the Buddha with the right hand raised, the palm facing outwards and the fingers upwards, while the left arm is next to the body. It shows the stage of the Buddha’s life immediately after achieving enlightenment.
• Varada Mudra The right arm of the varada statue falls downwards, with the palm facing towards the viewer. The five extended fingers represent the five perfections: generosity, morality, patience, effort and concentration.
• Karana Mudra The karana gesture has its index finger and little finger pointing straight upwards, while the other fingers fold into the palm. The karana Buddha can be depicted both seated and standing. The meaning of this gesture is to ward off evil and to get rid of demons and negative energy.
• Dharmachakra Mudra This mudra shows the tip of the middle finger on one hand, touching the tips of the thumb and index finger of the other hand, forming the mystic circle near the heart.
• Vitarka Mudra In the Vitarka Mudra, the tips of the thumb and index finger touch each other and form a circle. The right hand is held up to the viewer and the left hand is resting in the lap. The Mudra symbolises the teaching phase in the life of Buddha andthe circle stands for a never-ending flow of energy.

• Dravida Style – This style is associated with the Temples from South India. The Vimana in Dravida Style of Temple Architecture is Pyramidical Elevation of Towers.
• Nagara Style – The style is related to the Temples found in North India. The distinctive feature of this style is that the shikhara/Vimana is curvilinear shaped.
• Vesara Style – The temples build with a Mixture of Dravida and Nagara Styles of Temple Architecture are called as Vesara Style of Temples. These can mainly be seen in Karnataka region.

• Brihedeshwara Temple at Tanjore built by Rajarajeshwara Chola
• Shore Temple at Mahabalipuram built by Narasimhavarman II (Pallava King)
• Meenakshi – Sundareswara temple at Madurai built by Nayaka Rulers
• Kailashnath Temple at Kanchipuram built by Narasimhavarman II (Pallava King)
• Famous Kailashnath Temple is at Ellora, built by Rashtrakutas.

• The Temples are enclosed by a compound wall.
• The entrance gateway called as Gopuram is in the centre of the Front wall.
• The Garbhagriha is square shaped which is topped by a pyramidical Tower called as Vimana.
• The Shikhara in South India, which is an octagonal cupola, is equivalent to Kalash of North India.
• A Temple tank of Fresh water is within the enclosed structure of the Temple.
• A pillared wall called a Mandapa precedes the Garbhagriha and the Vimana.
• The Pillars and Vimana storeys are decorated by sculpting of images of Dwarpalas (door keepers)
• Over the period of time the height of the Goparam’s kept on increasing and in the Vijayanagara period the Goparam’s had almost become bigger than the Vimana’s.

• Kandariya Mahadeva Temple at Khajuraho, built by Chandela rulers
• Sun Temple at Modhera, Gujrat built by Solanki Rulers
• Sun Temple at Konark, built by Narasimhadeva I of the Eastern Ganga Dynasty
• Jagannatha temple at Puri, built by Eastern Ganga Dynasty rulers

• Lad Khan temple at Aihole, Karnataka, built by the Kings of the Chalukya Dynasty
• Virupaksha temple at Pattadakkal, built by Loka-Mahadevi, the Queen of the Chalukya king Vikramaditya II
• Kailshnatha Temple at Ellora, built by Rahstrakuta rulers
• Hoyasaleswara temple at Halebid, by the Hoyasala king Vishnuvardhan.

• Rashtrakutas widely patronized the Sanskrit literature.
• Trivikrama wrote Halayudha composed Kavirahasya during the reign of Krishna III.
• Jinasena composed Parsvabhudaya, a biography of Parsva in verses.
• Gunabhadra wrote the Adipurana, the life stories of various Jain saints.
• Sakatayana wrote Amogavritti a grammar work.
• Viracharya – a Great mathematician of this period wrote Ganitasaram.
• During the period of the Rashtrakutas, the Kannada literature saw its beginning.
• Kavirajamarga composed by Amogavarsha’s was the first poetic work in the Kannada language.
• Pampa was the greatest of the Kannada poets and Vikramasenavijaya is his famous work.
• Santipurana was another great work wrote by Ponna another famous Kannada poet.

• The Pala Empire was dethroned by the Hindu Sena dynasty in the 12th century.
• The Pala period is also known as a ‘Golden Era’ in Bengali history.
• They built magnificent monasteries and temples: Somapura Mahavihara (in Bangladesh), Odantapuri Monastery.
• They also patronized Buddhist centres of learning like Nalanda University and the Vikramshila University.
• During this time, the Bengali language developed. The first Bengali literary work Charyapada is attributed to this period. It was written in an Abahatta (the common ancestor of Bengali, Assamese, Odia and Maithili.
• Balaputradeva, the Sailendra king of Java sent an ambassador to Devapala.
• Buddhist poet Vajradatta who composed Lokesvarashataka was in Devapala’s court.
• Many Buddhist teachers from the Pala kingdom travelled to Southeast Asia to spread the faith. Atisha preached in Sumatra and Tibet.
• Sanskrit scholars were also patronized by the Pala kings. Gaudapada composed Agama Shastra during the time of the Palas.
• The Pala art (art seen in Bengal and Bihar during the Pala regime) influence is seen in the art of Nepal, Sri Lanka, Burma and Java.

• Pahari School of miniature painting emerged in the 17th century A.D. These paintings originated in the kingdoms of North India, in the Himalayan region.
• Influenced by the Mughal School and the Rajasthani School of miniature paintings, the Pahari style of paintings flourished in the Jammu and Garhwal regions from 17th to 19th centuries.
• The Pahari School of paintings gave rise to various other schools. Some of the most important schools of paintings under Pahari paintings are Guler School, Basohli School, Garhwal School, Chamba School and Kangra School.
• Each and every style of painting has its distinct features, but the portrayal of gods and goddesses is one of the most common features of the Pahari School of miniature painting. The scenic beauty of the Himalayas was also often depicted in these paintings.
• While usage of bold and contrasting colors shows the influence of Rajasthani School of miniature paintings, heavily decorated frames and borders exhibits the influence of the Mughal School.   

• Madhubani Painting – It is practiced in the Mithila region of Bihar. No space is left empty: gaps are filled in with paintings of flowers, animals, birds and geometric designs. Artists use natural dyes and pigment extracted from leaves, herbs and flowers.
• Phad: scroll paintings (bhilwada, rajasthan) – Phad is a painted scroll, which depicts stories of epic dimensions about local deities and legendary heroes. It represents the moving shrine of the deity and is an object of worship. The most popular and largest Phad belong to local deities Devnarayanji and Pabuji.
• Warli Paintings – Warli tribals of Thane district in Maharashtra decorate their house walls with paintings depicting their lives: planting saplings, carrying grain, dancing, travelling to market and other routine activities of their daily lives Symbols of the sun, moon and stars along with planets.

• Kalighat painting was a product of the changing urban society of the nineteenth century Calcutta.
• Group of artists evolved a quick method of painting on mill-made paper. Using brush and ink from the lampblack, these artists defined figures of deities, gentry and ordinary people with deft and vigorously flowing lines.
• The figures were located in picturesque landscape settings, with mountains, lakes, rivers and forests.
• There was romantic depiction of women
• The satirical paintings lampooning the hypocrisies of the newly rich and the changing roles of men and women after the introduction of education for women.
• Many of these Kalighat pictures were printed in large numbers and sold in the market. With the spread of nationalism, popular prints of the early twentieth century began carrying nationalist messages.

• Mithila Paintings – Mithila painting, popularly known as Madhubani art is from the district of the same name in Bihar and is now well-known all over the world. Women decorate the nuptial chamber and the inner walls of their homes to celebrate festivals.
• Jharnapatachitra – The jharnapatachitra of West Bengal is a long vertical paper scroll used to tell stories from religious epics. The artists compose songs that they sing while they slowly unroll each scene of the painting.
• Patachitra – The patachitra of Orissa depicts stories from the famous poem, the Geet Govind, and devotional stanzas by ancient poets, singers and writers. Stories are drawn in sections on palm leaf as etchings or as paintings on paper and silk.
• Kalamkari- Kalamkari or “pen craft” of Srikalahasti, Andhrapradesh is executed with a kalam or pen, used for free hand drawing of the subject and filling in the colours, entirely by hand. Paintings are usually hand-painted or block-printed on cotton textile.

• The earliest Brahmanical paintings so far known are the fragments found in Badami caves, though the technique follows that of Ajanta and Bagh.
• The modeling is much more sensitive in texture and expression and the outline is soft and elastic. Badami painting represent classical tradition of south.

• Dancing figures from Rajarajeshwara temple of Tanjore and Brihadeshwara temple at Tanjore are beautiful examples of medieval paintings.
• The wide open eyes of all figures are clear negation of Ajanta tradition of half closed drooping eyes.

• The Lepakshi Paintings are completely free from the blue colour and can also be characterized by the earth tones.
• The Paintings of Lepakshi are characterized by the use of orange-red background and the use of elegant line work. Particularly noteworthy are the beautiful hairstyles, the intricate jewelry, costumes, and the patterns of textiles depicted in the paintings. Nothing shown is ever blank. Every inch is beautifully detailed.
• The sarees shown are very well draped and intricately ornamented with designs of lines and squares. The depiction of Kulavi headgear is to be particularly noted. These are very colorful and must have been very popular during the Vijayanagara period.
• The paintings use natural pigments and cover every single region of the exposed surfaces in the temple. The paintings depict scenes from the Ramayana, the Mahabharata, and the Puranas, narrating the stories and incidents mentioned therein. A popular topic that is painted on the panels is the swayamvara of Draupadi. The warrior prince Arjun is seen with a bent bow. Draupadi’s sarees use very profound colors. Numerous people can be seen who would have been there to witness the ceremony of swayamvara.
• The temple ceiling also has a magnificent mural measuring about 24 feet by 14 feet depicting Lord Veerbhadra. The ‘Hall of Dance’ has eight beautiful panels depicting stories from the Puranas.
• Some famous paintings from Lepakshi are ‘Shiva as bridegroom’, ‘The Royal Hermit’, ‘Eight handed Lord Shiva’, ‘Shiva with attendants’, etc. The rich use of colors makes these paintings masterpieces of ancient mural art.

• The Bengal School of Art was an influential style of art that flourished in India during the British Raj in the early 20th century. It was associated with Indian nationalism, but was also promoted and supported by many British arts administrators.
• The Bengal school arose as an avant garde and nationalist movement reacting against the academic art styles previously promoted in India, both by Indian artists such as Ravi Varma and in British art schools.
• Following the widespread influence of Indian spiritual ideas in the West, the British art teacher Ernest Binfield Havel attempted to reform the teaching methods at the Calcutta School of Art by encouraging students to imitate Mughal miniatures. 

A carbon offset is a reduction in emissions of carbon dioxide or other greenhouse gases made in order to compensate for emissions made elsewhere. Carbon offsets are measured in tonnes of carbon dioxide-equivalent.

The GEF Small Grants Programme is a corporate programme of the Global Environment Facility (GEF).

The  GEF Small Grants Programme (SGP) provides financial and technical support to communities and Civil Society Organizations to meet the overall objective of global environmental benefits secured through community-based initiatives and actions.

The Small Grants Programme, through a decentralized, national-level delivery mechanism, finances community-led initiatives to address global environmental issues. It is currently implemented by UNDP on behalf of the GEF partnership. The Program is specifically designed to mobilize bottom-up actions by empowering local civil society organizations, and poor and vulnerable communities, including women and Indigenous Peoples.

The Atlantic meridional overturning circulation (AMOC) is the zonally-integrated component of surface and deep currents in the Atlantic Ocean. It is characterized by a northward flow of warm, salty water in the upper layers of the Atlantic, and a southward flow of colder, deep waters that are part of the thermohaline circulation. These “limbs” are linked by regions of overturning in the Nordic and Labrador Seas and the Southern Ocean. The AMOC is an important component of the Earth’s climate system, and is a result of both atmospheric and thermohaline drivers.

Promote domestic manufacturing and export in the entire value-chain of ESDM for economic development to achieve a turnover of USD 400 billion (approximately INR 26,00,000 crore) by 2025. This will include targeted production of 1.0 billion (100 crore) mobile handsets by 2025, valued at USD 190 billion (approximately INR 13,00,000 crore), including600 million (60 crore) mobile handsets valued at USD 110 billion (approximately INR 7,00,000 crore) for export.

The NPE 2019 aims to create a Sovereign Patent Fund (SPF) to promote the development and acquisition of IPs (Intellectual Property) in ESDM sector.

Read More: http://pib.nic.in/PressReleaseIframePage.aspx?PRID=1565285

Dard Aryans – Jammu and Kashmir

Chhipa – Rajasthan and Gujarat

Dongria Kondh – Odisha

National Pharmaceutical Pricing Authority (NPPA) was constituted by Government of India Resolution dated 29th August, 1997 as an attached office of the Department of Pharmaceuticals (DoP), Ministry of Chemicals & Fertilizers as an independent Regulator for pricing of drugs and to ensure availability and accessibility of medicines at affordable prices.

The NLEM 2015 contains 376 medicines on the basis of which the National Pharmaceutical Pricing Authority (NPPA) has fixed prices of over 800 formulations using the provisions of the DPCO.

However, these formulations cover less than 10% of the total pharmaceutical market. The DPCO follows a market-based pricing mechanism. The ceiling price is worked out on the basis of the simple average price of all brands having at least 1% market share of the total market turnover of that medicine.

Till June 2018, 851 medicines (including 4 medical devices i.e. Cardiac stents, drug eluting stents, condoms and intra uterine devices) are regulated under Revised Schedule – I based on National List of Essential Medicines, 2015 (NLEM, 2015).

Essential Medicine List

• As per the World Health Organisation (WHO), Essential Medicines are those that satisfy the priority health care needs of the population. The list is made with consideration to disease prevalence, efficacy, safety and comparative cost-effectiveness of the medicines. Such medicines are intended to be available in adequate amounts, in appropriate dosage forms and strengths with assured quality. They should be available in such a way that an individual or community can afford.
• The first country in the world to compose its EML was Tanzania in 1970.

What is Fixed Dose Combinations (FDCs)?

• Fixed Dose Combinations (FDCs) – As a principle, single medicines are to be preferred. FDCs are included only if the combination is rational and has a proven advantage with respect to therapeutic effect, safety and compliance or in decreasing the emergence of drug resistance. Some examples are, diseases such as malaria, Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) infection/ Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS), where the emergence of antimicrobial resistance is an important issue, which may be partly caused by poor compliance. In these therapeutic categories, certain FDCs have been considered as essential.  In certain other cases where FDCs are critical for their optimal efficacy, such FDCs are also considered as essential. For example, FDC of levodopa and carbidopa, and FDC of amoxicillin and clavulanic acid.

Source:

https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/regulating-drug-prices/article26390045.ece

Venkateswara Temple is a landmark Vaishnavite temple situated in the hill town of Tirumala at Tirupati in Chittoor district of Andhra Pradesh, India. The Temple is dedicated to Lord Sri Venkateswara, an incarnation of Vishnu, who is believed to have appeared here to save mankind from trials and troubles of Kali Yuga.

The temple is located on seven hills. The presiding deity is also referred to as Sapthagirisha or Lord of Seven hills.

• Vrushabhadri—Hill of Nandi, the vahana of Lord Shiva
• Anjanadri—Hill of Lord Hanuman.
• Neeladri—Hill of Neela Devi
• Garudadri or Garudachalam—Hill of Garuda, the vahana of Lord Vishnu
• Seshadri or Seshachalam—Hill of Sesha, the dasa of Lord Vishnu
• Narayanadri—Hill of Narayana. Srivari Padalu are located here
• Venkatadri—Hill of Lord Venkateswara

Source: https://www.thehindu.com/society/history-and-culture/the-king-who-became-a-devotee-of-lord-vishnu/article26330987.ece

Pada and javali are two kinds of love songs using the poetic imagery characteristic of the romantic-devotional movement.

The Javali is a quick composition that lasts around one to four minutes which is believed to have originated in the late 19th century. Inherited from the Devdasi tradition, it is erotic in nature and is best known for its attractive music and colloquial language.

The Special Purpose Trust Fund (SPTF), a specific fund housed within the UN Secretariat, has been established to receive, consolidate, manage and account for all contributions and financial transactions of the new RC system, in a transparent and effective way. The SPTF web portal, displays in real time all commitments, contributions and expenditures (soon) recorded for the fund. The successful implementation of the development system reform requires a fully-funded and owned Resident Coordinator (RC) system.

Source: https://sdg.iisd.org/news/un-launches-special-purpose-trust-fund-portal-to-support-rc-system/

The biodiversity that is the basis for agriculture and food production is declining rapidly. Many cultivated plants, animals and fish species that are the basis of food production are at risk of extinction. The diversity of species providing essential services to agriculture, such as pollinators and soil organisms is decreasing.

These are the key findings of a report titled, “State of the World’s Biodiversity for Food and Agriculture” (SOW-BFA), released by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the UN.

Source:

https://sdg.iisd.org/news/fao-report-sounds-alarm-on-decline-of-biodiversity-for-food-and-agriculture/