• Wars, conquests and victories were the dominating feature of the Rajput culture and society.
• The society suffered also because there was a great disparity in the standard of living of the people. They believed in caste and creed systems.
• The ministers, officials, feudal chiefs belonged to the upper class so they enjoyed the privileges to accumulate wealth as they were entitled to live in luxury and splendor.
• They were indulged in costly clothes, jewels and ornaments of gold and silver. They lived in palace like houses of several storey.
• The Rajput showed their glory with their Harems and number of servants that worked under them.
• On the other hand the peasants were burdened with the land revenue and other taxes that were brutally taken by the feudal lords or else they had to render forced labor.

Under the rule of Rajput only Brahmans and some sections of upper classes were entitled to be educated.

The famous centre of higher learning was at Nalanda in Bihar and some other important centers were Vikramasila and Uddandapura. At this time only some Saiva centers of learning flourished in Kashmir.

Religion and philosophy were the popular subjects for study and discussion.

Yet during this time the overall, growth of the knowledge of science slowed down as the society became increasingly rigid, thinking was mostly confined to traditional philosophy also during this period Science did not get proper scope or opportunity to develop.

The Pala Empire was a Buddhist supreme power in ancient India. The kingdom was focused around present-day Bangladesh and eastern India.

• The Palas had introduced a time of soundness and thriving in the Bengal-Bihar region.
• They were the supporters of the Mahayana and Vajrayana schools of Buddhism.
• They made numerous extraordinary temples and works of art, which also included the Somapura Mahavihara. The prestigious universities of Nalanda and Vikramashila prospered under their support.

The Rashtrakuta rulers supported the prominent religions of the day in the customary soul of religious resilience.

The Rashtrakutas constructed surely understood Jain temples at areas, for example, Lokapura in Bagalkot locale and their reliable feudatory, the Western Ganga Dynasty, assembled Jain landmarks at Shravanabelagola and Kambadahalli. Lord Amoghavarsha I was a follower of the Jain acharya Jinasena.

Lord Dantidurga performed the Hiranyagarbha (stallion penance) and the Sanjan and Cambay plates of King Govinda IV notice Brahmins performing such ceremonies as Rajasuya, Vajapeya and Asvamedha.

The Jain author Adikavi Pampa, broadly viewed as a standout amongst the most persuasive Kannada scholars, got to be well known for Adipurana (941 AD). It is the life history of the first Jain tirthankara Rishabhadeva.

Prithviraj Chauhan is one of the most remembered Hindu King of Ajmer.

He was an ambitious ruler, but had a rivalry with the Chalukyas of Gujarat. However, in the war between King of Gujarat and Mohammed Ghori, Prithviraj acted neutral. He wanted to escape from the historic fight but it proved to be a wrong decision and the Kingdom of Gujarat was in the cruel hands of Muhammad Ghori, which gave birth to Muslim era in India.

Prithviraj realized his mistake and expounded his empire by winning over some of the areas of Chalukyan king.

In the end, he could not avoid the fight against Muhammad Ghori and had to face two battles known as Battles of Train in 1191 and 1192. Prithviraj Chauhan lost the second battle and later on he was assassinated by Muhammad Ghori in Ajmer.

Islam was established in Sind and Multan.

The attempt failed as Rajput’s had a strong position in North. Initially, after the death of Muhammad bin Qasim, the Khalifah were shaken and the Islamic propagation was declined.

The alliances made by Muhammad Bin Qasim proved to be fruitful in later invasion of Islamic rulers.

The views on Islam were changed as Arabs were not cruel.

No extra taxes were imposed on Hindus for believing in Hinduism which won their hearts and they embraced the Arabs with the open arms.

The empire of Vijayanagara (named after the capital city) that prospered under the kingship of Harihara 1 who was succeeded by Bukka Raya 1 of Sangama Dynasty, showed great patronage to the literature, fine arts and architecture. The empire’s benefaction towards these creative pursuits enabled an enriched cultural heritage to that era.

Exemplary literature in languages Kannada, Telgu, Sanskrit and Tamil with an evolving Carnatic music that we cherish in its current form today grew to great prominence. On the other hand, architectural masterpieces in form of Hindu temples and many monuments (influenced by amalgamating cultural prevalence) that spread over the entire region of South India, shown as marveled structures.

The era of Sangama dynasty (Vijayanagara Empire) can be equated as a golden age of literature growth that involved scholars of Tamil, Telugu, Kannada and Sanskrit to write marvelous works on several aspects like religion, biographies, music, and poetics in the traditions like Jain, Virashaiya and Vishnavas.

The first Independent Islamic Kingdom in South India was the Bahmani Sultanate or the Bahmani Kingdom.

One of the great medieval Indian kingdoms, the Bahmani Sultanate was founded as a revolt against Muhammad bin Tughlaq of the Delhi Sultanate by Zafar Khan, of Turkish origin.

Who took the title of Ala-ud-din Hassan Bahman Shah. Establishing a strong rule with nearly 18 kings for about 200 years, the Southern King Krishnadeva Raya defeated the last ruler of Bahmani Empire after which it got disintegrated into 5 states around 1518 AD,

Collectively known as Deccan Sultanates and individually as: Nizamshahi of Ahmadnagar, Qutubshahi of Golconda (Hyderabad), Baridshahis of Bidar, Imadshahi of Berar, Adilshahi of Bijapur.

Sufism highlighted the essentials of love and devotion as the effective means of the realization of God.

Sufis believed service to humanity was equal to service to God. According to the Sufis, Love of God meant Love of Humanity.

In Sufism, self-discipline is essential to gain knowledge of God with a sense of insight.

The Alvars and Nayanars led some of the earliest bhakti movements (c. sixth century).

Alvars – those who were “immersed” in devotion to Vishnu

Nayanars – leaders who were devotees of Shiva

They travelled from place to place singing hymns in Tamil praising their gods.

The Alvars and Nayanars initiated a movement of protest against the caste system and the dominance of Brahmanas or at least attempted to reform the system. This is supported by the fact that bhaktas or disciples hailed from diverse social backgrounds ranging from Brahmanas to artisans and cultivators and even from castes considered “untouchable”

The Nalayira Divyaprabandham (“Four Thousand Sacred Compositions”) – one of the major anthologies of compositions of the 12 Alvars compiled by the 10th Century

It was frequently described as the Tamil Veda, thus claiming that the text was as significant as the four Vedas in Sanskrit that were cherished by the Brahmanas.

From a composition of an Alvar named Tondaradippodi a Brahmana mentions Chaturvedins – Are strangers and without faithfulness to your service.

Tevaram – a collection of compiled and classified in the 10th century on the basis of the music of the songs of Appar, Sambandar, and Sundarar.

He was born at Allahabad.

Initially he was a follower of Ramanuja.

Later he founded his own sect and preached his principles in Hindi at Banaras and Agra.

Ramananda was the first to employ the vernacular medium to spread his ideas.

He opposed the caste system and chose his disciples from all sections of society irrespective of caste.

Ramananda’s disciples were:

• Kabir
• Raidasa, he was a cobbler
• Sena, he was a barber
• Sadhana
• Dhanna, he was from a Jat farmer
• Naraharai, he was a goldsmith
• Pipa, he was a Rajput prince

They condemned the ritual and other aspects of orthodox religion and the social order, using simple, logical arguments.

They encouraged renunciation of the world.

To them, the path to salvation lay in meditation and to achieve this they advocated intense training of the mind and body through practices like yogasanas, breathing exercises and meditation.

These groups became particularly popular among “low” castes.

Peshwa or the Chief Minister – He looked after general administration.

Amatya or Majumdar – Accountant general, he later became revenue and finance minister.

Sachiv or Surunavis– Also called Chitnis; he looked after the Royal correspondence.

Sumant or Dabir – Foreign affairs and the master of Royal ceremonies.

Senapati or Sari-i-Naubat – Military commander. He looked after the recruitment, training and discipline of army.

Mantri or Waqia Navis – Personal safety of the king, he looked after the intelligence, post and household affairs.

Nyayadhish – Administration of Justice

Punditrao – Looking after charitable and religious affairs of the state. He worked for the moral upliftment of the people.

Shah Alam II (AD 1759-1806)

He was popularly known as ‘Ali Gauhar’ who was defeated in the Battle of Buxar in 1764.

During his reign, the third Battle of Panipat took place.

Till 1772, he gave all his Diwani rights of Bihar, Bengal and Orissa but after 1772 with the help of Mahaji Scindia, he gets back all his Diwani rights.

He was the first Mughal ruler who becomes East India Company Pensioner.

Causes of Mughal’s Decline

The decline of Mughal Empire was not sudden but gradual process of fused administrative action. The following were the main causes of decline:

• The Vastness of the Empire: It was not possible to rule over area without any cooperative federalism. Hence, the Empire began to sink due to its own reason.
• Centralized Administration: The vast Empire cannot be rule without decentralization and their coordination.
• Responsibility of Aurangzeb: His religious policy, Rajput Policy, and Deccan Policy led disappointments to his subjects who made way of disintegration.
• Wars of Succession: Prolong war of succession fractured the administrative unit of Mughal’s.
• Weakness of the Nobility: Mughal’s noble were well known for their loyalty but war of successor degenerated the nobility.

In 1505 AD, Francisco de Almeida was appointed as the first Portuguese governor in India.

His policy being centric to controlling the Indian Ocean was known as the Blue Water Policy.

Alfonso de Albuquerque who replaced Almeida as the governor in 1509 AD, and captured Goa from the Sultan of Bijapur in 1510 AD is considered the real founder of the Portuguese power in India.

Goa subsequently became the headquarters of the Portuguese settlements in India. Portuguese hold over the coastal areas and superiority in naval power helped them significantly.

By the end of the 16th century, the Portuguese captured not only Goa, Daman, Diu, and Salsette but also a vast stretches along the Indian coast.

Dutch presence on the Indian subcontinent lasted from 1605 AD to 1825 AD.

The rise of the British power in the Eastern trade posed serious challenge to the commercial interest of the Dutch leading to  bloody warfare between them in which British were the clear winners owing to huge resources at their disposal.

The brutal killing of some English traders by the Dutch in Amboyna in 1623 further aggravated the situation.

The Britishers one after another captured Dutch strongholds.

As the time passed, there came a change in their motives and they began to consider India as their colony.

The appointment of Joseph Francois Dupleix as the Governor of the French East India Company in 1741 AD was the first step towards this realization and goal during whose tenure political motives began to clearly surface and even overshadow their commercial objectives.

Dupleix was extremely talented took advantage of the rivalries among local rulers and saw it as god send opportunity to establish French empire in India.

He was diplomatic and intriguing par excellence, which earned him respectable position in the Indian political scenario.

But it was the British who challenged French under Dupleix and subsequently both powers had a face-off.

Dupleix’s army under the Marquis de Bussy-Castelnau captured the areas between Hyderabad and Cape Comorin.

Robert Clive -a British officer -arrived in India in 1744 AD, and decisively defeated Dupleix. After this defeat,  Dupleix was recalled to France in 1754 AD.

The victory in Carnatic war prepared the ground for the British to establish their supremacy in India and the French dream of an Indian empire disappeared for ever.

With the victory of Wandiwash the British East India Company had no European rival left in India.

The British became the master of this great country. Besides having skilled leaders like Sir Eyre Coote, Major Stringer Lawrence.

Robert Clive on their side the British was also a strong naval power which was a decisive factor with them to become credible rulers of India.

The major reasons that helped the British to be established as ruling power during next two hundred years in India can be described as –

The loss of central authority in India after the decline of the Mughal empire with the death of  Aurangzeb in 1707 AD and.

The prevailing political disunity among the Indian rulers, for instance, they often sought assistance from the British for their own security, which gave a golden opportunity to the foreigners to increasingly meddle in their internal affairs and take advantage of their weaknesses

White Stem Bomer

• Coffee white stem borer, Xylotrechus quadripes, is a serious pest of arabica coffee causing a yield loss up to 40 per cent in all coffee growing areas of India.
• It is a blackish brown coloured beetle measuring about 2 cm in size with three pairs of white stripes running obliquely across the wings. Alternate host plants of this beetle include rose sandal wood, teak etc.

External debt of India

• It is the total debt the country owes to foreign creditors, complemented by internal debt owed to domestic lenders.
• The debtors can be the Union government, state governments, corporations or citizens of India.
• The debt includes money owed to private commercial banks, foreign governments, or international financial institutions such as the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and World Bank.
• India’s external debt data is published quarterly, with a lag of one quarter.
• Statistics for the first two quarters of the calendar year are compiled and published by the Reserve Bank of India.
• Data for the last two quarters is compiled and published by the Ministry of Finance.
• The Government of India also publishes an annual status report on the debt which contains detailed statistical analysis of the country’s external debt position.

It comprises of

• Multilateral
• bilateral
• IMF loans
• Export credit
• Commercial borrowings
• NRI deposits
• Rupee debts

Highlights

• Commercial borrowings were the largest component of external debt with a share of 37.4%, followed by NRI deposits (24.1%) and short term trade credit
• US dollar denominated debt continued to be the largest component of India’s external debt with a share of 45.9% at end December 2018, followed by the Indian rupee (24.8%), SDR (5.1%), yen (4.9%) and euro (3.1%).

India was given Strategic Trade Authorisation-1 (STA-1) status by the U.S. in August last year, the third Asian country after South Korea and Japan (and 37th country globally) to acquire it. This was to further facilitate the transfer of technology in the defence and space sectors.

Aoleang Monyu festival

• Aoleang Monyu festival is the biggest and most significant festival of the Konyak Nagas of Nagaland.
• Celebrated during the first week of April every year, Aoleang is a vibrant spring festival and of great cultural significance for the Konyaks.
• It marks the ending of the sowing season and the beginning of a new year for the Konyaks and prayers are offered for a prosperous harvest season.

Po-rag

• It is one of the three farming-related festivals of the Mishing community.
• Po-rag is derived from Apong, the rice wine brewed by the Mishings, and Rag that encompasses merriment, music and dance.
• The Mising are an indigenous tribal community inhabiting 11 districts of Assam and Arunachal Pradesh.

The Yarmuk River, sometimes spelled Yarmouk, is the largest tributary of the Jordan River. It runs in Jordan, Syria, and Israel and drains much of the Hauran plateau.

The Global Conference on Strengthening Synergies between the Paris Agreement and the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (informally the Climate & SDGs Synergy Conference), organized by UN DESA and the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change, and hosted by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the Ministry of Energy, Utilities and Climate, Denmark, aims to align the climate and SDG processes, and stimulate action from stakeholders at the global, regional and country levels to maximize co-benefits.

Limiting global warming to 1.5oC above pre-industrial levels, including through scaling up climate action towards both adaptation and mitigation, is an imperative critical to the achievement of the 2030 Agenda.

The conference will examine how best to advance joined-up efforts for both the SDGs and climate action at the global, regional and country levels, thus also helping to scale up levels of ambition towards these objectives.

http://sdg.iisd.org/events/expert-group-meeting-on-sdg-13/

Pichhwai, which literally means a ‘textile hanging’ (wai) at the ‘back’ (picch), originated as temple-art in Nathdwara, Rajasthan. They are devotional pictures found on cloth or paper which portray Lord Krishna.

https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/art/curator-pooja-singhals-atelier-pichvai-tradition-and-beyond-is-in-bikaner-house-in-delhi-for-its-fourth-show-of-contemporary-pichvai-paintings-and-interpretations/article26979500.ece

Between sixth to the early eleventh century, the sculptors caught with the imagination of dancing Shiva, had portrayed in all possible manner throughout the country. The nadanta pose of Chola Nataraja is the derivation and experimentation on the concept of Chalukya Nataraja. Rajaraja Chola immortalised the form of Nataraja, as he fondly called the great Lord as ‘Adavallavan’, one who knows to dance.

The concept of the dance of the twilight was so mystic and sensational living the imprint on the minds of the devout, that they erected hundreds and thousands pillared halls for the purpose of dancing.

https://www.thehindu.com/society/history-and-culture/icons-of-sublimity/article26874163.ece

Ancient poets (kavi) are broadly classified into four kinds:

• Aasu kavi – the impromptu poet, who could create meaningful verses on the spot;
• Vistaara kavi – the poet who conveys his message in a very elaborate way in the form of long poems;
• Chitra kavi – the poet who is adept at using his expansive vocabulary to convey the message in an impressive style.
• Madhura kavi – the poet capable of conveying the content in the sweetest way possible.

https://www.thehindu.com/society/history-and-culture/pioneer-disciple/article26874157.ece

Helium hydride ion, the first molecule that formed almost 14 billion years ago, was detected by NASA’s flying observatory SOFIA towards a planetary nebula.

Scientists have detected the most ancient type of molecule in our universe in space for the first time ever.

Helium hydride ion (HeH+) was the first molecule that formed when, almost 14 billion years ago, falling temperatures in the young universe allowed recombination of the light elements produced in the Big Bang.

https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/science/universes-first-molecule-detected-in-space/article26886165.ece