60 Days Plan: UPSC IAS Prelims 2019- Geography and Current Affairs (Day 28)

Explanation:

If soil contains greater proportion of big particles it is called sandy soil.
If the proportion of fine particles is relatively higher, then it is called clayey soil.
If the amount of large and fine particles is about the same, then the soil is called loamy.

Note: Incorrect options have been asked.

Explanation:

Clay soils have little air but they are heavy as they hold more water than the sandy soils.

Silt occurs as a deposit in river beds and it particles size is between those of sand and clay.

Explanation:

Clayey and loamy soils are both suitable for growing cereals like wheat, and gram. Such soils are good at retaining water.

For paddy, soils rich in clay and organic matter and having a good capacity to retain water are ideal.

For lentils (masoor) and other pulses, loamy soils, which drain water easily, are required.

Explanation:

The uppermost horizon is generally dark in colour as it is rich in humus and minerals. The humus makes the soil fertile and provides nutrients to growing plants.
This layer is generally soft, porous and can retain more water. It is called the topsoil or the A-horizon.
The next layer has a lesser amount of humus but more of minerals. This layer is generally harder and more compact and is called the B-horizon or the middle layer.
The third layer is the C-horizon, which is made up of small lumps of rocks with cracks.

Explanation:

In some cases, the soil formed may or may not have the same physical properties of the parent rock.
Climatic factors induce chemical changes which also affect physical properties of the soil.
The surface rocks are exposed to the process of weathering. In this process, the rocks are converted into fine grains and provide a base for the soil formation.

Explanation:

Gondwana rocks are sedimentary in nature and they are much younger.
On weathering they give rise to comparatively less mature soils.
The soil is more or less of uniform character but of low fertility.

Explanation:

Volcanic outburst over a vast area of the Peninsular India many hundred million years ago gave rise to Deccan Traps.

Basaltic lava flowed out of fissures covering a vast area of about ten lakh sq km.
Basalts are rich in titanium, magnetite, aluminium and magnesium.
Consequently the weathering of these rocks has given rise to soils of darker colour.
The soil is fertile with high moisture holding capacity and is popularly known as ‘regur’ or black cotton soil.

Explanation:

Red soils along with its minor groups form the largest soil group of India.
The main parent rocks are crystalline and metamorphic rocks like acid granites, gneisses and quartzites.

Characteristics of Red Soils:

The texture of these soils can vary from sand to clay, the majority being loams.
On the uplands, the red soils are poor, gravelly, and porous. But in the lower areas they are rich, deep dark and fertile.

Chemical Composition of Red Soils:

They are acidic mainly due to the nature of the parent rocks. The alkali content is fair.
They are poor in lime, magnesia, phosphates, nitrogen and humus.
They are fairly rich in potash and potassium.

Explanation:

Laterite soils are mostly the end products of weathering.

They are formed under conditions of high temperature and heavy rainfall with alternate wet and dry periods.

Heavy rainfall promotes leaching (nutrients gets washed away by water) of soil whereby lime and silica are leached away and a soil rich in oxides of iron and aluminium compounds is left behind.
‘Laterite’ means brick in Latin. They harden greatly on loosing moisture.
Laterite soils are red in colour due to little clay and more gravel of red sand-stones.

Explanation:

Mountain soils occupy 8.67% of the total land area of India.
They are mainly heterogeneous soils found on the hill slopes covered by forests.
The formation of these soils is mainly governed by the characteristic deposition of organic matter derived from forests and their character changes with parent rocks, ground-configuration and climate.

In the Himalayan region, such soils are mainly found in valleys, less steep and north facing slopes. The south facing slopes are very steep and exposed to denudation and hence do not support soil formation. Forest soils occur in Western and Eastern Ghats also.

The forest soils are very rich in humus. They are deficient in potash, phosphorus and lime. They require good deal of fertilizers for high yields. They are suitable for plantations of tea, coffee, spices and tropical fruits in peninsular forest region. Wheat, maize, barley and temperate fruits are grown in the Himalayan forest region.

Explanation:

About the Peaty – Marshy Soils:

These are soils with large amount of organic matter and considerable amount of soluble salts.
The most humid regions have this type of soil. They are black, heavy and highly acidic.

Distribution of Peaty – Marshy Soils:

Kottayam and Alappuzha districts of Kerala where it is called kari.
Also occur in the coastal areas of Odisha and Tamil Nadu, Sunderbans of West Bengal, in Bihar and Almora district of Uttarakhand.

Chemical Properties of Peaty – Marshy Soil:

They are deficient in potash and phosphate.

Crops of Peaty – Marshy Soils: Most of the peaty soils are under water during the rainy season but as soon the rains cease, they are put under paddy cultivation.

Explanation:

Characteristics of Indian Soils:

Most soils are old and mature. Soils of the peninsular plateau are much older than the soils of the great northern plain.

Indian soils are largely deficient in nitrogen, mineral salts, humus and other organic materials.
Plains and valleys have thick layers of soils while hilly and plateau areas depict thin soil cover.
Some soils like alluvial and black soils are fertile while some other soils such as laterite, desert and alkaline soils lack in fertility and do not yield good harvest. Indian soils have been used for cultivation for hundreds of years and have lost much of their fertility.

Explanation:

Problems of Indian Soils include:

1. Soil erosion (Himalayan region, Chambal Ravines etc.)
2. Deficiency in fertility (Red, lateritic and other soils)
3. Desertification (around Thar desert, rain-shadow regions like parts of Karnataka, Telangana etc.)
4. Waterlogging (Punjab-Haryana plain)
5. Salinity and alkalinity (excessively irrigated regions of Punjab, Haryana, Karnataka etc.) 6. Wasteland, over exploitation of soils due to increase in population and rise in living standards and encroachment of agricultural land due to urban and transport development.

Explanation:

Alluvial soils are the largest soil group covering about 46 per cent of the total area.
They support more than 40% of the India’s population by providing the most productive agricultural lands.

Characteristics of Alluvial Soils:

They are immature and have weak profiles due to their recent origin.
Most of the soil is Sandy and clayey soils are not uncommon.
Pebbly and gravelly soils are rare. Kankar (calcareous concretions) beds are present in some regions along the river terraces. The soil is porous because of its loamy (equal proportion of sand and clay) nature. Porosity and texture provide good drainage and other conditions favorable for agriculture. These soils are constantly replenished by the recurrent floods.

Chemical properties of Alluvial Soils:

The proportion of nitrogen is generally low. The proportion of Potash, phosphoric acid and alkalies are adequate The proportion of Iron oxide and lime vary within a wide range.

Distribution of Alluvial Soils in India:

They occur all along the Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra plains except in few places where the top layer is covered by desert sand. They also occur in deltas of the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna and the Cauvery, where they are called deltaic alluvium (coastal alluvium)
Some alluvial soils are found in the Narmada, Tapi valleys and Northern parts of Gujarat.
Crops in Alluvial Soils They are mostly flat and regular soils and are best suited for agriculture.
They are best suited to irrigation and respond well to canal and well/tube-well irrigation.
They yield splendid crops of rice, wheat, sugarcane, tobacco, cotton, jute, maize, oilseeds, vegetables and fruits.

Geological divisions of alluvial soils:

Geologically, the alluvium of the Great plain of India is divided into newer or younger khadar and older bhangar soils.

Bhabar

The bhabar belt is about 8-16 km wide running along the Shiwalik foothills. It is a porous, northern most stretch of Indo-Gangetic plain. Rivers descending from the Himalayas deposit their load along the foothills in the form of alluvial fans. These alluvial fans (often pebbly soils) have merged together to build up the bhabar belt. The porosity of bhabar is the most unique feature. The porosity is due to deposition of huge number of pebbles and rock debris across the alluvial fans. The streams disappear once they reach the bhabar region because of this porosity. Therefore, the area is marked by dry river courses except in the rainy season. The area is not suitable for agriculture and only big trees with large roots thrive in this belt.

Terai

Terai is an ill-drained, damp (marshy) and thickly forested narrow tract (15-30 km wide) to the south of Bhabar running parallel to it. The underground streams of the Bhabar belt re-emerge in this belt. It is a swampy lowland with silty soils. The terai soils are rich in nitrogen and organic matter but are deficient in phosphate. These soils are generally covered by tall grasses and forests but are suitable for a number of crops such as wheat, rice, sugarcane, jute etc..
This thickly forested region provides shelter to a variety of wild life.

Bhangar

The Bhangar is the older alluvium along the river beds forming terraces higher than the flood plain (about 30 metres above the flood level).
It is of a more clayey composition and is generally dark colored.
A few metres below the terrace of the bhangar are beds of lime nodules known as “Kankar”.

Khadar

The Khadar is composed of newer alluvium and forms the flood plains along the river banks.
The banks are flooded almost every year and a new layer of alluvium is deposited with every flood. This makes them the most fertile soils of Ganges.
They are sandy clays and loams, more dry and leached, less calcareous and carbonaceous (less kankary). A new layer of alluvium is deposited by river flood almost every year.

Explanation:

These soils are best suited for cotton crop. Hence these soils are called as regur and black cotton soils. Other major crops grown on the black soils include wheat, jowar, linseed, virginia tobacco, castor, sunflower and millets. Rice and sugarcane are equally important where irrigation facilities are available. Large varieties of vegetables and fruits are also successfully grown on the black soils. This soil has been used for growing a variety of crops for centuries without adding fertilizers and manures, with little or no evidence of exhaustion.

Explanation:

All statements are self explanatory.

The extraction process of shale gas involves two methods:-

Horizontal drilling:

Under this technique a vertical well is drilled to the targeted rock formation and then at  the desired depth, the drill bit is turned horizontally, exposing the well to more of the producing shale.

Hydraulic Fracturing:

In this technique, water along with chemicals and sand are pumped into the well and a fracture or crack is developed in the shale rock to release the hydrocarbons trapped in shale formations to flow from the shale into the well.

Hydraulic fracturing when used in conjunction with horizontal drilling, it enables gas producers to extract shale gas at reasonable cost and rapidly as it enhances the flow of gas quickly to the desired well.

Jambusar located near Vadodara in Gujarat is India’s first shale gas exploratory successfully drilled in Cambay region.

Explanation:

Shale gas is found in LOW POROSITY but HIGH PERMEABILITY rock formations.

Two separate characteristics of rocks control how effective they are as aquifers:

Porosity is a measure of how much of a rock is open space. This space can be between grains or within cracks or cavities of the rock. Permeability is a measure of the ease with which a fluid (water in this case) can move through a porous rock.

Please see the following links to understand the concept of porosity and permeability by the use of diagrams:

http://earthresources.vic.gov.au/__data/assets/image/0007/1563352/permeability-.jpg

https://encrypted-tbn0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcRKsr6xWeKbEsycy_ERfIZ0ONCqy0UCAmQLXck1S7J-LFJ3zeiw

The question has been framed from the following links:

https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/economy/india-to-hunt-for-shale-gas-in-6-basins/article23049469.ece

https://www.thehansindia.com/posts/index/Opinion/2018-12-02/Shale-gas-reserve-in-India-source-of-clean-energy/451020

Explanation:

All the statements are self explanatory.

Coal Bed Methane or CBM refers to methane that is found in coal seams. It is formed during the process of coalification, the transformation of plant material into coal. CBM is also known as virgin coal seam methane or coal seam gas. It is widely considered an “unconventional” source of natural gas.

Coal Mine Methane or CMM refers to methane released from the coal and surrounding rock strata due to mining activities. In underground mines, it can create an explosive hazard to coal miners, so it is removed through ventilation systems. In abandoned mines and surface mines, methane might also escape to the atmosphere through natural fissures or other diffuse sources.

Like CBM, CMM is a subset of the methane found in coal seams, but it refers specifically to the methane found within mining areas (e.g., within a mining plan), while CBM refers to methane in coal seams that will never be mined. Because CMM would be released through mining activities, recovering and using CMM is considered emissions avoidance.

Ventilation air methane (also known as VAM) refers to the very dilute methane that is released from underground mine ventilation shafts. VAM represents more than half of all coal mining emissions in the United States and worldwide. With few exceptions, it is simply released to the atmosphere.

The high volumetric flowrate and low concentrations of VAM (i.e., less than 1 percent) make it challenging to capture and utilize cost-effectively. It is technically possible, however, to convert the dilute methane in ventilation air to useful energy and the economic feasibility of these projects are currently being developed, demonstrated, and commercialized.

Tight gas refers to natural gas reservoirs locked in extraordinarily impermeable, hard rock, making the underground formation extremely “tight.” Tight gas can also be trapped in sandstone or limestone formations that are atypically impermeable or nonporous, also known as tight sand.

In other words, the pores in the rock formation in which the gas is trapped are either irregularly distributed or badly connected with overly narrow capillaries, lessening permeability — or the ability of the gas to travel through the rock.

KINDLY SEE THE BELOW LINK TO UNDERSTAND THE LOCATIONS OF VARIOUS GAS DEPOSITS:

https://www.aph.gov.au/~/media/05%20About%20Parliament/54%20Parliamentary%20Depts/544%20Parliamentary%20Library/BriefingBook44p/GasDebate.gif?la=en

THE QUESTION HAS BEEN FRAMED USING FOLLOWING LINKS:

https://www.bloombergquint.com/business/no-commercial-discovery-of-shale-gas-reserves-in-india-yet-says-pradha

https://www.thehansindia.com/posts/index/Opinion/2018-12-02/Shale-gas-reserve-in-India-source-of-clean-energy/451020

https://www.epa.gov/cmop/frequent-questions#q2

https://www.rigzone.com/training/insight.asp?insight_id=346&c_id=

Explanation:

All statements are self explanatory and have been taken from the following link:

https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/facts/hydrates.html

Explanation:

All statements are self explanatory and have been taken from following links:

https://www.ongcindia.com/wps/wcm/connect/en/about-ongc/new-initiatives-in-energy/gas-hydrates/

https://www.business-standard.com/article/economy-policy/india-might-hold-world-s-second-largest-gas-hydrate-reserves-118060501430_1.html

The Karma Kagyu school belongs to the Vajrayana branch of Mahayana Buddhism. It conceives itself as a member of the third turning of the dharmacakra and participates in the Rimé movement.

The central teaching of the Karma Kagyu is the doctrine of Mahamudra, also known as the “Great Seal”. This doctrine focuses on four principal stages of meditative practice (the Four Yogas of Mahamudra):

• The development of single-pointedness of mind,
• The transcendence of all conceptual elaboration,
• The cultivation of the perspective that all phenomena are of a “single taste”,
• The fruition of the path, which is beyond any contrived acts of meditation.

The supreme lama of the Karma Kagyu is the Karmapa, who always presides as lineage holder once he has reached his majority and received all the necessary training and dharma transmissions.

Hiawatha Glacier is a glacier in northwest Greenland, near Inglefield Land.

Hiawatha Glacier attracted attention in 2018 because of the discovery of a crater beneath the surface of the ice sheet in the area.

HysIS

• The satellite is known as Hyper Spectral Imaging Satellite (HysIS)
• HysIS is an earth observation satellite developed by ISRO.
• It is the primary satellite of the PSLV-C43 mission.
• The satellite will be placed in 636 km polar sun synchronous orbit (SSO) with an inclination of 97.957 deg.
• The mission life of the satellite is five years
• The primary goal of HysIS is to study the earth’s surface in visible, near infrared and shortwave infrared regions of the electromagnetic spectrum.
• A hyperspectral imaging camera in space can provide well-defined images that can help to identify objects on Earth far more clearly than regular optical or remote sensing cameras

The Jenkins’s shrew (Crocidura jenkinsi) is a critically endangered species of mammal in the family Soricidae. It is endemic to South Andaman Island.

Source: https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/energy-and-environment/andaman-nicobar-islands-home-to-a-tenth-of-indias-fauna-species/article25592134.ece

The Council which has been set up under POSHAN Abhiyaan is the apex body to formulate overall policies, guide and monitor all nutrition based schemes. The mandate of the Council is:

• To provide policy directions to address India’s Nutrition Challenges through coordinated inter-sectoral action
• To coordinate and review convergence among ministries
• To review programmes for nutrition on a quarterly basis

The Council will submit its report to the Prime Minister every six months.

The total reserves with the RBI stand at Rs 9.6 lakh crore, up from Rs 8.38 lakh crore in F17. The RBI reserves are divided under several heads.

It holds contingency fund worth Rs 2.32 lakh crore, up from Rs 2.28 lakh crore in FY17. Under currency and gold revaluation account, the RBI holds Rs 6.92 lakh crore, up from 5.3 lakh crore in FY17.

It has 0.23 lakh crore under asset development fund, same as in FY17. Under investment revaluation account for rupee, it holds Rs 0.13 lakh crore, down from Rs 0.57 lakh crore in FY17. 

https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/banking/finance/banking/battle-over-reserves-heres-how-much-money-rbi-sits-on-can-part-with-and-how-it-builds-the-funds/articleshow/66625456.cms

NRDWP is a centrally sponsored scheme aimed at providing every person in rural India with “adequate, safe water” for drinking, cooking and other domestic basic needs in a “sustainable manner”.

National Rural Drinking Water Programme (NRDWP) was launched in 2009.

Underperformance of the scheme:

By 2017, NRDWP aimed to achieve certain objectives.  However, by December 2017, these objectives were not completely attained.  It aimed to provide all rural habitations, government schools, and anganwadis access to safe drinking water.  Of this, only 44% of rural households and 85% of government schools and anganwadis were provided access. It also aimed to provide 50% of rural population potable drinking water (55 litres per capita per day) by piped water supply.  Of this, only 18% of rural population was provided potable drinking water. It also sought to give household connections to 35% of rural households. Of this, only 17% of rural households were given household connections.

Summary of CAG Report-

https://cag.gov.in/sites/default/files/audit_report_files/Executive_Summary_of_Report_No_15_of_2018_-_Performance_Audit_on_National_Rural_Drinking_Water_Programme_in_Ministry_of_Drinking_Water_and_Sanitation.pdf

https://www.business-standard.com/article/economy-policy/why-govt-s-rural-drinking-water-programme-failed-despite-spending-rs-800-bn-118112600094_1.html

India Skills Report is a joint initiative of Wheebox, a Global Talent Assessment Company, PeopleStrong, a leading HR Tech Company and Confederation of Indian Industry (CII).

It is supported and backed by renowned partners like

• United Nations Development Programme (UNDP),
• All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE) and
• Association of Indian Universities (AIU),

Stated that Employability continues to rise thus reaching a new high of 47% this year – An incremental change of almost 2-3 percentage points since last year and a huge change of over 15% points in the past 5 years.

https://www.business-standard.com/article/news-ani/india-skills-report-2019-employability-increases-from-37-to-47-38-in-5-years-118112200634_1.html

https://cii.in/PublicationDetail.aspx?enc=tudKNn66lNehqGyVloSEsS3Tz8C3WQCKCvrCWTBhIlwZRF3ofpz2bVo8DTPFOniObfRUiyc1D8UXwpWLBLMyZmdbINDuo7eF5SqxJYombe/oqhj5kn8XpTiG7Wb2iFkybey/grWkwCi/P07Uci4VQsPNuLmLw61IkDIL9r6+jbgF/RtFA5i6/o9UHqNSNLXK

Jute crop requires humid climate with temperature fluctuating between 25 degree Celsius and 30 degree Celsius.

Minimum rainfall required for jute cultivation is 1000 mm. New  grey alluvial soil of good depth receiving silt from annual  floods is most suitable for jute growth.

However, jute is grown widely in sandy looms and clay loams.

PH range between 4.8 to 5.8 (acidic) is best suited for its cultivation.

In news: The CCEA approved that 100% of the food grains and 20% of the sugar shall be mandatorily packed in diversified jute bags. The decision to pack sugar in diversified jute bags will give an impetus to the diversification of the jute industry.

http://pib.nic.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=185884

INDRA-2018 military exercise between India and Russia was conducted here.

http://pib.nic.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=184717

https://www.indiatoday.in/education-today/gk-current-affairs/story/india-russia-will-host-joint-military-exercise-in-jhansi-up-1389016-2018-11-15