60 Days Plan: UPSC IAS Prelims 2019- History and Current Affairs (Day 31)

• Major climate change happened.
• Climate became warmer and more humid.
• Rainfall increased and so more availability of flora and fauna.
• Domestication of animals and plants were seen for the first time.
• Started 12000 years ago.
• First animal to be domesticated was the wild ancestor of the dog.
• Sheep and goats were the most common domesticated animals.
• Hunting and food gathering continued.
• First human colonization of the Ganga plains.
• Microliths have been excavated.
• They are small stone tools that were probably stuck to stones to be used as saws and sickles.

The limitations of Chalcolithic phase were:

• Chalcolithic people could not make full use of domestic animals as they used them only for food and not for milk (they thought that milk is for animals’ young ones).
• They did not do much of cultivation. They lived in black cotton soil area which required iron tools for cultivation and there are no traces of plough or hoe.
• Chalcolithc phase did not show longevity. There are traces of a large number of children buried which indicate lack of nutrition and outbreak of epidemics.
• People had no knowledge of mixing two metals so they could not use the stronger metal bronze nicely.  Copper had its own limitations and its supply was also less.
• People were not aware of the art of writing and they could not gain any benefit from the technical knowledge of the Indus people.

• The basic economy of the people was necessarily agricultural. Cultivation was on an extensive scale facilitated by the presence of rivers.
• The principal food grains were wheat, barley, peas, and sesamum. Cotton was also grown. The general diet consisted of fruits, vegetables, animal food including beef, mutton, pork and poultry.
• There is clear evidence of the existence of a highly developed system of craft production and distribution. There were specialized groups of potters, copper and bronze workers. The merchants of the Indus Valley carried their trade far beyond their frontiers of the empire and established contacts with other peoples of other civilizations.
• The construction of different categories of buildings and the architectural planning of the town, the use of different kinds of ornaments made of gold and silver speaks high of the economic standard of the Indus valley people.

• Even smaller towns and villages had impressive drainage systems. This indicates that people had a great civic sense of sanitation and care for health and hygiene.
• Small drains made of burnt bricks were connected with bathing platforms and latrines of private houses joined the medium sized drains in the side streets.
• These drains ran into larger sewers in the main streets which were covered with bricks or dressed stone blocks. Corbelled-arch drains have also been found. One of them is almost 6 ft. deep which functioned as main drain taking all the waste water out of the town.
• At regular intervals along the main sewage drains were rectangular sump pits for collecting waste and these were regularly cleaned.

• The Rig Vedic Aryans owe their success to the knowledge of horses, chariots and bronze arms.
• They traded copper from Khetri region in Rajasthan.
• For sowing, harvesting and threshing, the Aryans used a wooden ploughshare.
• The most important possession for the Aryans was the cow.
• As the Aryans were pastoralists, most wars were fought for the control of cow pens. These wars were called Gavisthi or search for cows in the rig Veda.
• Land was not seen as a part of private property.
• Metals used were copper, iron and bronze.
• Few people worked as goldsmith, potters, spinners and carpenters.

• In the early Vedic age women enjoyed an honored place in the society. The wife was the mistress of the household and authority over the slaves.
• In all religious ceremonies she participated with her husband. Prada system was not prevalent in the society. Sati system was also not prevalent in the Vedic society.
• The education of girls was not neglected. The Rig-Veda mentions the names of some learned ladies like Viswavara, Apala and Ghosa who composed mantras and attained the rank of Rishis. The girls were married after attaining puberty.
• The practice of ‘Swayamvara’ was also prevalent in the society. Monogamy was the general Practice.
• Polygamy was, of course, practiced and it was confined only to Rings and chiefs. Remarriage of widows was permitted. The women were not independent persons in the eye of the law. They had to remain under the protecting care of their male relations.

• Causes of the decline of this civilization have not been firmly established. Archaeologists now believe that the civilization did not come to an abrupt end but gradually declined. People moved eastwards and cities were abandoned. Writing and trade declined.
• Mortimer Wheeler suggested that Aryan invasion led to the decline of the Indus Valley. This theory has now been debunked.
• Robert Raikes suggests that tectonic movements and floods caused the decline.
• Lambrick suggests a change in the course of the river Indus caused its decline.
• Other causes cited include a drying up of the rivers, deforestation and a destruction of the green cover. It is possible that some cities were destroyed by floods but not all. It is now accepted that several factors could have led to the decline of the Indus Valley civilization.
• New cities emerged only about 1400 years later.

• King assisted by Mantriparishad (council of ministers) whose members included Mantriparishad Adhyaksha and below him was as following:
• Yuvaraj: The crown prince, Purohita: The chief priest, The Senapati: The commander in chief, Amatya: Civil servants and few other ministers.
• Scholars suggest that Mauryan Empire was further divided into various departments with important officials:
• Revenue department:- Important officials: Sannidhata: Chief treasury, Samaharta: collector general of revenue.
• Military department: Megasthenese mentions a committee with six subcommittees for coordinating military activity of these, one looked after the navy, the second managed transport and provisions, and the third was responsible for foot-soldiers, the fourth for horses, the fifth for chariots and the sixth for elephants.
• Espionage Department: Mahamatyapasarpa controlled Gudhapurushas (secret agents)
• Police department: The jail was known as Bandhangara and it was different from lock-up called Charaka. There were police head quarters in all principal centres.

• Ashoka embraced Buddhism in the 9th year of his reign after being inspired by Nigrodha, a boy monk. Ashoka embraced Buddhism under the influence of Buddhist monk, Upagupta. Ashoka has stated in his Bhabru Edict that he has full faith in Buddha, Sangha and Dhamma.
• He also engraved Rock Edicts and Pillar Edicts to spread the message of Buddhism among masses.
• Ashoka maintained a large and powerful army to maintain peace and authority.  Ashoka expanded friendly relations with states across Asia and Europe, and sponsored Buddhist missions.
• Missionaries to the kingdoms of Cholas and Pandyas and five states ruled by Greek kings were sent by Ashoka. He also sent missionaries to Ceylon and Suvarnbhumi (Burma) and also parts of South East Asia.

• A new era was opened in Indian History after the establishment of Mauryan Empire. It was very first time in history that whole India was politically united.
• In addition, from this period history writing became clear because of accuracy in chronology and sources.
• Along with this indigenous and foreign literary sources were available in ample form. This empire left records in a large number to write the history of this period.
• Also, some important archaeological findings associated with Mauryan Empire were stone sculptures; a tremendous example of typical Mauryan art.
• Some scholars suggest that message on Ashoka inscription was entirely different from most other rulers which is a symbol of powerful and industrious Ashoka and also he was humble more than other (later) rulers who adopted grand titles.
• So it’s not surprising that leaders of the nation regarded him as an inspiring figure.

• Land tax constituted the single largest source of income of the Chola state. It was generally assessed at one-third of the produce.
• The village assembly took land tax and local levies. Cattle rearing were a subsidiary occupation.
• Trade with foreign countries was an important feature of the Cholas mercantile activities. The rulers built a network of royal roads that were useful for trade as well as for the movement of the army.
• There were gigantic trade guilds that traded with Java and Sumatra.
• South India exported textiles, spices, drugs, jewels, ivory, horn, ebony and camphor to China. Trade brought considerable prestige and affluence to the Cholas.
• Kalanju was the currency prevalent in the Chola kingdom.

• It is the period from the first century BCE to the end of the second century CE in south India.
• There were 3 Sangams conducted in ancient South India called Muchchangam, Tamil legends say.
• These Sangams prospered under the royal patronage of the Pandya kings of Madurai.
• Three dynasties ruled during the Sangam Age – the Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas.
• The key source of evidence about these kingdoms is outlined from the literary references of Sangam Period.

• He was responsible for introducing Zaminbosi or practice of Sijda. Under this, the people had to kneel down and touch the ground with their head while greeting the Sultan.
• He propagated the Iranian theory of Divine Rights which said that Sultan was the representative of God on Earth.
• He ended the influence of the Corp of Forty.
• He didn’t allow Ulemas to interfere into the political affairs of the state.
• He didn’t allow Hindus entry in army or other institutions of authority.
• He re-organized the army of Delhi Sultanate to counter the threats of the Mongols. For this, he created a new department of military affairs known as Diwan-i-arz which was given in charge of Ariz-i-Mumalik.
• He built forts and established Afghan garrisons to guard communications with Bengal. The titles of Turkish Khans for vast estates were strictly examined and he took back the lands from which no adequate military service was received and thus, reduced the power of the nobles. He maintained pomp and dignity at his court.
• Balban was succeeded by his grandson Kaikubad who was not competent enough to maintain the empire intact.

• Some scholars have argued that the Gupta Empire was a golden age of India. The empire was marked by peace and public safety, and scholars flourished in this environment.
• Kalidasa, a poet of the time, is considered the greatest poet and dramatist of the Sanskrit language.
• Aryabhata, who lived during Gupta Empire, was the first of the Indian mathematician-astronomers who worked on the approximation for Pi. Vishnu Sharma is thought to be the author of the Panchatantra fables, one of the most widely-translated non-religious books in history.
• The Gupta Empire ended with the invasion of the White Huns, a nomadic tribe of people from central Asia, at the end of the fifth century CE.
• Until the sixteenth century, there was no unifying empire; regional political kingdoms ruled India.

• Son of Chandragupta I and Kumaradevi.
• Was a military genius and was successful in adding many territories into the Gupta Empire.
• The Allahabad inscription describes his bravery as composed by his court poet, Harisena. There it is said that he defeated nine kings of the Ganges Valley, twelve kings from the southern region and eighteen forest tribes.
• His region extended from the Himalayas in the north to the Krishna and Godavari Rivers in the south; and from Balkh (Afghanistan) in the west to Brahmaputra River in the east.
• He was a follower of Vaishnavite Hinduism but was tolerant of other faiths. He gave permission to the king of Sri Lanka, Meghavarna to build a monastery in Bodh Gaya.
• He was also called “Indian Napoleon” by art historian Vincent Smith.
• He also performed Ashvamedha sacrifice. Hence, one of his coins refers to him as “the restorer of Ashvamedha.”
• He was also called “Kaviraja” since he composed verses.

• During the post Harsha period the literary and inscriptional evidences show the advanced state of agriculture, trade and economy.
• The early Arab writers also refer to the fertility of the soil and the rich cultivation. Literature like Abhidhanaratnamala mentions that the soil was classified variously as fertile, barren, desert, excellent etc.
• It is also mentioned that different kinds of fields were selected for different classes of crops.
• In the field of industry the oldest one is that of textile. The profession of weavers, dyers, tailors etc.  Is mentioned by the contemporary literature.
• Working in metal was also very popular during that period. Some centres of metal industry were famous. Saurastra (Gujarat) was famous for its bell metal industry while Vanga (Bengal) was known for its tin industry.
• The trade with South East Asia during post Gupta age registered a significant increase. The Arab, Chinese and Indian sources mention the flow of trade between east and west via India.
• India exported sandal wood, pearls, camphor, cotton, metals, and precious and semi precious stones. The imported items consisted majorly of horses. The horses were imported from Central and Western Asia.  The Shrenis or guilds were important in post Gupta age.

• Hiuen Tsang visited India during Harsha’s reign. He has given a very favorable account of king Harsha and his empire. He praises his generosity and justice.
• Harsha was a great patron of the arts. He himself was an accomplished writer. He is credited with the Sanskrit works Ratnavali, Priyadarshika and Nagananda.
• Banabhatta was his court poet and he composed the Harshacharita which gives an account of Harsha’s life and deeds.
• Harsha generously supported the Nalanda University.
• He had a good tax structure. 1/4th of all the taxes collected were used for charity and for cultural purposes.
• Harsha was a competent military conqueror and an able administrator.
• Harsha was the last king to rule over a vast empire in India before the invasions by the Muslims.

• Tools and weapons were simple in form. They included flat -axes, chisels, arrowhead, spearheads, knives, saws, razors, and fish-hooks.
• People also made copper and bronze vessels.
• They made small plates and weights of lead, and gold and silver jewellery of considerable sophistication.

• They built cave temples depicting both religious and secular themes.
• The temples had beautiful mural paintings also.
• The temples under the Chalukyas are a good example of the Vesara style of architecture. This is also called the Deccan style or Karnataka Dravida or Chalukyan style. It is a combination of Dravida and Nagara styles.
• Aihole temples: Ladh Khan temple (Surya Temple), Durga temple, Huchimalligudi temple, Jain temple at Meguti by Ravikirti. There are 70 temples in Aihole.
• Badami temples
• Pattadakkal: is a UNESCO World Heritage site. There are ten temples here – 4 in Nagar style and 6 in Dravida style. Virupaksha temple and Sangameshwara Temple are in Dravida style. Papanatha temple is in Nagara style.

• Son and successor of Mahendravarman.
• Considered the greatest of the Pallavas. Also called Narasimhavarman Mahamalla/Mamalla.
• Defeated and killed Pulakesin II in 642 AD. He took control of Vatapi, the Chalukya capital and assumed the title ‘Vatapikonda’.
• Also vanquished the Cholas, Cheras and the Pandyas.
• He sent a naval expedition to Sri Lanka and reinstated the Sinhalese Prince Manivarma.
• He founded the city of Mamallapuram or Mahabalipuram which is named after him.
• Hiuen Tsang visited the Pallava kingdom during his reign in about 640 AD and he describes the people living in his kingdom as happy.
• He also says there was an abundance of agricultural products.
• Great Nayannar saints like Appar, Tirugnanasambandar and Siruthondar lived during his reign.
• He was succeeded by his son Mahendravarman II who ruled from 668 to 670 AD.

Read More – https://www-cdn.oxfam.org/s3fs-public/file_attachments/bp-climate-finance-shadow-report-030518-en.pdf

Source: https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/lead/still-on-the-last-chance-saloon/article25682710.ece

Warsaw International Mechanism for Loss and Damage

• The L&D Mechanism was established at the 19th session of the Conference of the Parties (COP 19) in Warsaw, Poland, which took place in November 2013.
• The aim of the L&D Mechanism is to address loss and damage associated with impacts of climate change, including extreme events (such as hurricanes, heat waves, etc.) and slow onset events (such as desertification, sea level rise, ocean acidification, etc.) in developing countries that are particularly vulnerable to the adverse effects of climate change.

The L&D Mechanism will promote the implementation of approaches to addresses loss and damage in three ways:

• Enhancing knowledge and understanding of comprehensive risk management approaches;
• Strengthening dialogue, coordination, coherence and synergies among relevant stakeholders;
• Enhancing action and support, including finance, technology and capacity–building.

The L&D Mechanism will facilitate:

• Action to address gaps in the understanding of various topics related to addressing loss and damage, for example, the risk of slow onset events, non-economic loss and damage, how impacts of climate change are affecting patterns of migration, displacement and human mobility, etc.;
• Collection, sharing, management and use of relevant data and information;
• Provision of overviews of best practices, challenges, experiences and lessons learned.

Source: https://www.thehindu.com/news/international/climate-talks-deliver-rule-book/article25758735.ece

Hebbagodi Lake – Bengaluru

Ameenpur Lake – Hyderabad

Lonar Lake – Buldhana

The second group of Kuiper belt objects, known as the cold classicals, have nearly circular orbits and lie almost on the same plane as the planets. That suggests they have been largely undisturbed since the birth of the solar system. Ultima Thule, the target of New Horizons, is a cold classical Kuiper belt object.

The Troubled Asset Relief Program (TARP) is a program of the United States government to purchase toxic assets and equity from financial institutions to strengthen its financial sector that was passed by a Democratic Party controlled Congress and signed into law by Republican Party President George W. Bush on October 3, 2008. It was a component of the government’s measures in 2008 to address the subprime mortgage crisis.

Source: https://www.thehindu.com/news/international/why-the-road-ahead-for-brexit-is-going-to-be-hard/article25643539.ece

In a bid to promote conservation of groundwater, the Central Ground Water Authority (CGWA) has notified a water conservation fee (WCF) that industries will need to pay on groundwater extraction starting from June.

As per the notification, industries extracting groundwater including mining-dewatering units and those that use groundwater for packaged drinking water would also need to apply for a no-objection certificate (NOC) from the government. Individual households that draw groundwater using a delivery pipe of a greater than 1” diameter, too, would need to pay a WCF.

However, the agriculture sector the largest consumer of groundwater in the country will be exempt from the fees. Defence establishments and users who don’t use electricity to extract water have also been granted exemption from the requirement of obtaining NOCs and having to pay the WCF.

https://www.business-standard.com/article/news-ians/government-to-levy-fee-on-ground-water-use-118121301190_1.html

Ministry of Power has launched the ECO Niwas Samhita 2018, an Energy Conservation Building Code for Residential Buildings (ECBC-R).

The Code was launched on the occasion of National Energy Conservation Day 2018.

Implementation of this Code expected to save 125 Billion Units of electricity per year by 2030, which is equivalent to 100 million ton of CO2 emission 26 industrial units get National Energy Conservation Awards for excellent performance in energy efficiency.

http://pib.nic.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=186406

Nagzira Wildlife Sanctuary is situated in Maharashtra

“Whale Shark Day” or fondly known as “Vhali Utsav” was declared in February, 2007, by the Government of Gujarat to mark the efforts of conserving the gentle giant of the sea.

Wildlife Trust of India and its partners the International Fund for Animal Welfare (IFAW) supported by Tata Chemicals Ltd, Gujarat Heavy Chemicals Ltd and the Gujarat Forest Department initiated the Whale Shark Campaign in the year 2004, to spread awareness among the fishing community in the state, on the endangered status of this fish.

EMV chip technology is the latest global standard for card payments. EMV is an acronym for Europay Mastercard and Visa, who developed this technology.

EMV cards are chip-based payment cards with enhanced safety features that are designed to prevent fraudulent practices such as card skimming and cloning.