During an Emergency, the Central government becomes all powerful and the states go into the total control of the Centre.

It converts the federal structure into a unitary one without a formal amendment of the Constitution. This kind of transformation of the political system from federal during normal times to unitary during Emergency is a unique feature of the Indian Constitution.

Parliament becomes empowered to make laws on any subject mentioned in the State List. Although the legislative power of a state legislature is not suspended, it becomes subject to the overriding power of the Parliament. Thus, the normal distribution of the legislative powers between the Centre and states is suspended, though the state Legislatures are not suspended. In brief, the Constitution becomes unitary rather than federal.

Under Article 352, the President can declare a national emergency when the security of India or a part of it is threatened by war or external aggression or armed rebellion. It may be noted that the president can declare a national emergency even before the actual occurrence of war or external aggression or armed rebellion, if he is satisfied that there is an imminent danger.

The President can also issue different proclamations on grounds of war, external aggression, armed rebellion, or imminent danger thereof, whether or not there is a proclamation already issued by him and such proclamation is in operation.

However, the President can proclaim a national emergency only after receiving a written recommendation from the cabinet. This means that the emergency can be declared only on the concurrence of the cabinet and not merely on the advice of the prime minister.

The 44th Amendment Act of 1978 introduced this safeguard to eliminate any possibility of the prime minister alone taking a decision in this regard.

It was in the Minerva Mills case (1980), the Supreme Court held that the proclamation of a national emergency can be challenged in a court on the ground of malafide or that the declaration was based on wholly extraneous and irrelevant facts or is absurd or perverse.

The proclamation of Emergency must be approved by both the Houses of Parliament within one month from the date of its issue. Originally, the period allowed for approval by the Parliament was two months, but was reduced by the 44th Amendment Act of 1978.

Emergency is imposed for an initial period of six months and can last for a maximum period of three years with repeated parliamentary approval every six months.

The Rajya Sabha can approve a proclamation of emergency under the Article 352 of the Constitution for a period of six months when the Lok Sabha remained suspended.

The article 356 of the constitution which focuses on the failure of the Constitutional machinery of the State is often termed as the President’s rule.

There are various reasons for which President’s rule can be imposed on a State:

• The failure of the State government to function as per the constitution is the first step towards this.
• Other factors include the loss of majority, break down of law and order, indecisive outcome of elections, no alternate claimant to form the government, insurgency, defections and break-up of coalition.
• It can be imposed initially for a period of six months.

A resolution of disapproval is different from a resolution approving the continuation of a proclamation in the following two respects:

The first one is required to be passed by the Lok Sabha only, while the second one needs to be passed by the both Houses of Parliament.

The first one is to be adopted by a simple majority only, while the second one needs to be adopted by a special majority.

President’s Rule (Article 356)

• It can be proclaimed when the government of a state cannot be carried on in accordance with the provisions of the Constitution due to reasons which may not have any connection with war, external aggression or armed rebellion.
• During its operation, the state executive is dismissed and the state legislature is either suspended or dissolved. The president administers the state through the governor and the Parliament makes laws for the state. In brief, the executive and legislative powers of the state are assumed by the Centre.
• There is a maximum period prescribed for its operation, that is, three years. Thereafter, it must come to an end and the normal constitutional machinery must be restored in the state.
• Every resolution of Parliament approving its proclamation or its continuance can be passed only by a simple majority. Special majority is needed in case of Article 352 National Emergency, hence, statement (1) is wrong.
• It has no effect on Fundamental Rights of the citizens.
• It can be revoked by the President only on his own.

The NGT was established on October 18, 2010 under the National Green Tribunal Act 2010, passed by the Central Government. The stated objective of the Central Government was to provide a specialized forum for effective and speedy disposal of cases pertaining to environment protection, conservation of forests and for seeking compensation for damages caused to people or property due to violation of environmental laws or conditions specified while granting permissions.

The above-said act was enacted under constitutional provision of Article 21, which assures the citizens of India the right to a healthy environment. Hence, statement (3) is not true.

The NGT is not bound by the procedure laid down under the Code of Civil Procedure, 1908, but shall be guided by principles of natural justice.

It is responsible for enforcement of any legal rights relating to environment and also gives relief and compensation for damages to persons and property.

The Chairman of the tribunal is required to be a serving or retired Chief Justice of a High Court or a judge of the Supreme Court of India. Members are chosen by a selection committee (headed by a sitting judge of the Supreme Court of India) that reviews their applications and conducts interviews. The Judicial members are chosen from applicants who are serving or retired judges of High Courts. Expert members are chosen from applicants who are either serving or retired bureaucrats not below the rank of an Additional Secretary to the Government of India (not below the rank of Principal Secretary if serving under a state government) with a minimum administrative experience of five years in dealing with environmental matters. Or, the expert members must have a doctorate in a related field.

When the President’s rule is imposed in a state, the Parliament becomes empowered to make laws with respect to any matter in the State List in relation to that state.

A law made so by the Parliament continues to be operative even after the president’s rule. This means that the period for which such a law remains in force is not co-terminus with the duration of the President’s rule. But, such a law can be repealed or altered or re-enacted by the state legislature. Hence, statement (2) is not true.

Distinction between Articles 358 and 359

The differences between Articles 358 and 359 can be summarised as follows:

• Article 358 is confined to Fundamental Rights under Article 19 only whereas Article 359 extends to all those Fundamental Rights whose enforcement is suspended by the Presidential Order.
• Article 358 automatically suspends the fundamental rights under Article 19 as soon as the emergency is declared. On the other hand, Article 359 does not automatically suspend any Fundamental Right. It only empowers the president to suspend the enforcement of the specified Fundamental Rights.
• Article 358 operates only in case of External Emergency (that is, when the emergency is declared on the grounds of war or external aggression) and not in the case of Internal Emergency (ie, when the Emergency is declared on the ground of armed rebellion). Article 359, on the other hand, operates in case of both External Emergency as well as Internal Emergency.
• Article 358 suspends Fundamental Rights under Article 19 for the entire duration of Emergency while Article 359 suspends the enforcement of Fundamental Rights for a period specified by the president which may either be the entire duration of Emergency or a shorter period.
• Article 358 extends to the entire country whereas Article 359 may extend to the entire country or a part of it.
• Article 358 suspends Article 19 completely while Article 359 does not empower the suspension of the enforcement of Articles 20 and 21.
• Article 358 enables the State to make any law or take any executive action inconsistent with Fundamental Rights under Article 19 while Article 359 enables the State to make any law or take any executive action inconsistent with those Fundamental Rights whose enforcement is suspended by the Presidential Order.

Every high court (whether exclusive or common) consists of a chief justice and such other judges as the president may from time to time deem necessary to appoint. Thus, the Constitution does not specify the strength of a high court and leaves it to the discretion of the president. Accordingly, the President determines the strength of a high court from time to time depending upon its workload.

A judge of a high court can be removed from his office by an order of the President. The President can issue the removal order only after an address by the Parliament has been presented to him in the same session for such removal. The address must be supported by a special majority of each House of Parliament (i.e., a majority of the total membership of that House and majority of not less than two-thirds of the members of that House present and voting). The grounds of removal are two—proved misbehaviour or incapacity. Thus, a judge of a high court can be removed in the same manner and on the same grounds as a judge of the Supreme Court.

The salaries, allowances, privileges, leave and pension of the judges of a high court are determined from time to time by the Parliament.

The President can transfer a judge from one high court to another after consulting the Chief Justice of India. Hence, statement (d) is not true.

The original constitution had fixed sanctioned strength of the court at 8 and left the matter to parliament to increase the number of judges as needed by making a law [Supreme Court (Number of Judges) Amendment Act]. The number was increased to 11 in 1960, 14 in 1968, 18 in 1978, 26 in 1986 and 31 in 2009 (one chief justice and thirty other judges). Hence, statement (1) is wrong.

The Constitution has constituted the Supreme Court as the guarantor and defender of the fundamental rights of the citizens. The Supreme Court is empowered to issue writs including habeas corpus, mandamus, prohibition, quo-warrento and certiorari for the enforcement of the fundamental rights of an aggrieved citizen.

However, the Parliament can confer on the Supreme Court, the power to issue writs for other purposes also.

There was widespread belief that imposition of President’s rule was more to do with the priorities of the Central government than the constitutional crisis.

The judgement of the Supreme Court in 1994 gave a clear definition as to when the President’s rule can be imposed on a state thereby paving the way for the state governments to challenge the Centre if it feels that it has been unduly removed. (subject to Judicial Review)

The Supreme Court held that a state government could be dismissed only under justifying circumstances and laid down guidelines for the same.

This judgement is called the Bommai judgement after the former Karnataka Chief Minister S R Bommai whose government was dismissed by the Centre and the President’s rule was imposed.

Article 360 empowers the president to proclaim a Financial Emergency if he is satisfied that a situation has arisen due to which the financial stability or credit of India or any part of its territory is threatened.

A resolution approving the proclamation of financial emergency can be passed by either House of Parliament only by a simple majority, that is, a majority of the members of that house present and voting.

A proclamation of Financial Emergency may be revoked by the president at anytime by a subsequent proclamation. Such a proclamation does not require the parliamentary approval.

The jurisdiction and powers of the Supreme Court can be classified into the following:

• Original Jurisdiction.
• Writ Jurisdiction.
• Appellate Jurisdiction – Appeal by Special Leave
• Advisory Jurisdiction.
• A Court of Record.
• Power of Judicial Review.
• Other Powers.

A high court enjoys the following jurisdiction and powers:

• Original jurisdiction.
• Writ jurisdiction.
• Appellate jurisdiction.
• Supervisory jurisdiction.
• Control over subordinate courts.
• A court of record.
• Power of judicial review.

Removal of Judges –

• A judge of the Supreme Court can be removed from his Office by an order of the president.
• The President can issue the removal order only after an address by Parliament has been presented to him in the same session for such removal.
• The address must be supported by a special majority of each House of Parliament (ie, a majority of the total membership of that House and a majority of not less than two-thirds of the members of that House present and voting).
• The grounds of removal are two—proved misbehaviour or incapacity.

Though India has a dual polity, there is no dual system of administration of justice. The Constitution, on the other hand, established an integrated judicial system with the Supreme Court at the top and the state high courts below it. This single system of courts enforces both the Central laws as well as the state laws.  This is done to eliminate diversities in the remedial procedure.

The judges of a state high court are appointed by the president in consultation with the Chief Justice of India and the governor of the state. They can also be transferred and removed by the president.

The President can appoint a judge of the Supreme Court as an acting Chief Justice of India when:

1. the office of Chief Justice of India is vacant; or
2. the Chief Justice of India is temporarily absent; or
3. the Chief Justice of India is unable to perform the duties of his office.

The Attorney General (AG) is appointed by the president. He must be a person who is qualified to be appointed a judge of the Supreme Court. In other words, he must be a citizen of India and he must have been a judge of some high court for five years or an advocate of some high court for ten years or an eminent jurist, in the opinion of the president.

The term of office of the AG is not fixed by the Constitution. Further, the Constitution does not contain the procedure and grounds for his removal. He holds office during the pleasure of the president. This means that he may be removed by the president at any time. He may also quit his office by submitting his resignation to the president. Conventionally, he resigns when the government (council of ministers) resigns or is replaced, as he is appointed on its advice. The remuneration of the AG is not fixed by the Constitution. He receives such remuneration as the president may determine.

The salary and allowances of the Judges, the salaries, allowances and pensions of the staff as well as the administrative expenses of a high court are charged on the Consolidated Fund of the State.

However, the pension of a high court judge is charged on the Consolidated Fund of India and not the state.

Gas hydrates are formed when a gas such as methane gets trapped in well-defined cages of water molecules forming crystalline solids. In terrestrial conditions, gas hydrates are formed naturally under the sea bed and glaciers under high pressure, low temperature conditions. Methane hydrate is a potential source of natural gas.

Source: https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/science/iit-madras-team-produces-gas-hydrates-under-space-conditions/article25934300.ece

It is a body under Department of Science & Technology, Ministry of Science & Technology.

The Indian Science Congress Association (ISCA) owes its origin to the foresight and initiative of two British Chemists, namely, Professor J. L. Simonsen and Professor P.S. MacMahon.

The Ministry of Health & Family Welfare (MOHFW) has launched the Direct Benefit Transfer (DBT) scheme for nutritional support to tuberculosis patients as Nikshay Poshan Yojana (NPY).

Ministry has provided detailed guidance to the State/Union Territories (UTs) on how DBT is to be operationalized. State/UTs have been given different payment options as per their convenience for either making payment directly through Public Financial Management System (PFMS) or through the Nikshay PFMS interface

Flexibility of providing the benefit through existing bank account of a blood relative has also been given. State have also been advised to facilitate opening of zero balance accounts for TB patients, if necessary, under the Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana (PMJDY) and Indian Postal Bank.

The Midday Meal Scheme is covered by the National Food Security Act, 2013.

The scheme guidelines envisage to provide cooked mid-day meal with 450 calories and 12 g of protein to every child at primary level and 700 calories and 20 g of protein at upper primary level.

It is a common digital currency launched by the central banks of the United Arab Emirates (UAE) and Saudi Arabia.

The Maraikkayars were seafarers from the Tamil country, and among them, the Kunjalis of the 16th century were renowned for their heroic naval battles with the Portuguese.

Considered to be India’s first naval heroes, they led the native resistance on the seas against Portuguese invaders.

Source: https://www.thehindu.com/society/history-and-culture/kunjali-maraikkayars-bold-adventurers/article26078569.ece

Hypsometry or Hypsometry Curve– It is essentially a graph that shows the proportion of land area that exists at various elevations by plotting relative area against relative height.

Bathymetry is the study of underwater depth of lake or ocean floors. In other words, bathymetry is the underwater equivalent to hypsometry or topography.

https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/what-is-hypsometric-curve-in-geology/article26105557.ece

The Beveridge curve, or UV curve

This refers to a graphical representation that shows the relationship between the unemployment rate (on the horizontal axis) and the job vacancy rate (on the vertical axis) in an economy.

It is named after British economist William Beveridge. The Beveridge curve usually slopes downwards because times when there is high job vacancy in an economy are also marked by relatively low unemployment since companies may actually be actively looking to hire new people. By the same logic, a low job vacancy rate usually corresponds with high unemployment as companies may not be looking to hire many people in new jobs.

https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/what-is-beveridge-curve-in-economics/article26130968.ece

The Life-Cycle Hypothesis (LCH) is an economic theory that pertains to the spending and saving habits of people over the course of a lifetime.

The concept was developed by Franco Modigliani and his student Richard Brumberg. LCH presumes that individuals plan their spending over their lifetimes, taking into account their future income.

Accordingly, they take on debt when they are young, assuming future income will enable them to pay the debt off. They then save during middle age in order to maintain their level of consumption when they retire. This results in a “hump-shaped” pattern in which wealth accumulation is low during youth and old age, and high during middle age.

Source: https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/in-economics-what-is-life-cycle-hypothesis/article25926060.ece

The Great Living Chola Temples were built by kings of the Chola Empire, which stretched over all of south India and the neighbouring islands.

The site includes three great 11th- and 12th-century Temples: the Brihadisvara Temple at Thanjavur, the Brihadisvara Temple at Gangaikondacholisvaram and the Airavatesvara Temple at Darasuram.

The Brihadisvara temple at Tanjavur marks the greatest achievement of the Chola architects. Known in the inscriptions as Dakshina Meru, the construction of this temple was inaugurated by the Chola King, Rajaraja I. It included gopura, the main temple, its massive tower, inscriptions, frescoes and sculptures predominantly related to Shaivism, but also of Vaishnvaism and Shaktism traditions of Hinduism.

The Airavatesvara temple at Tanjavur was built by the Chola king Rajaraja II. The temple is dedicated to Shiva. It also reverentially displays Vaishnavism and Shaktism traditions of Hinduism, along with the legends associated with sixty three Nayanars – the Bhakti movement saints of Shaivism.

The Brihadisvara temple at Gangaikondacholapuram in the Perambalur district was built for Siva by Rajendra Chola I. It is dedicated to Shiva and based on a square plan, but the temple reverentially displays Vaishnavism, Shaktism and syncretic equivalence themes of Hinduism with statues of Vishnu, Durga, Surya, Harihara, Ardhanishvara, and others.

Source: https://www.thehindu.com/society/history-and-culture/decoding-chola-art/article26014479.ece