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Syllabus

• Prelims: Governance

In News: The programme, held as part of the ‘Ek Bharat Sreshtha Bharat’ initiative, is aimed at rekindling the civilisational link between the two places

• A month-long programme to “strengthen” and “rekindle” the cultural and civilisational bond between Tamil Nadu and Varanasi
• To be held from November 16 to December 16 this year
• The period will cover the Tamil month of Karthikeya during which all Tamil households go pray to Lord Shiva

Source: The Hindu

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Syllabus

• Prelims: Environment

Context: In November 2021, at the CoP 26 in Glasgow, Prime Minister Narendra Modi had articulated the concept of “Lifestyle for the Environment” (LiFE) — advocating for “mindful and deliberate utilisation” by people worldwide, instead of “mindful and wasteful consumption”.

• According to the United Nation Environment Programme (UNEP), if one billion people out of the global population of close to eight billion adopt eco-friendly behaviours in their daily lives, global carbon emissions could drop by approximately 20 per cent.
• There is an urgent need for individuals to transcend geographical, social and economic boundaries, and come together as a global community to tackle the climate crisis.
• India can lead the global climate debate by nudging the world towards a new model of sustainable and inclusive development through the Lifestyle for the Environment (LiFE) movement.

Lifestyle for the Environment (LiFE)

• Launched on June 5, 2022, World Environment Day
• Vision: To harness the power of individual and collective action across the world to address the climate crisis.
• The objective of the movement is to nudge individuals and communities to adopt simple and specific climate-friendly behaviours in their daily lifestyles.
• Mission LiFE emboldens the spirit of the P3 model, i.e. Pro Planet People, as it is premised on the basic principles of ‘Lifestyle of the planet, for the planet and by the planet’.

Precedents of pro-planet initiatives around the world

• Denmark promotes the use of bicycles by limiting parking within the city centre and providing exclusive bike lanes.
• Japan has its unique “walk-to-school” mandate, which has been in practice since the early 1950s.

LiFE, however, is planned as a first-of-its-kind global movement, led by India in partnership with other countries, that will provide the world with a unique people-powered platform to relentlessly focus on bringing individual and collective actions to the core of the climate action narrative.

• Consume responsibly: LiFE plans to nudge the world to consume responsibly, rather than consuming less. Building on the unique insights from India’s recent janandolans such as the Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM), LiFE will deploy a range of tested behavioural techniques, including nudges, social and behaviour change communication and norm influencing to make mindful consumption a mass movement.
• Produce responsibly: By nudging the consumption patterns of the society at scale, LiFE can also trigger a huge boost for the sustainability market. Several green industries and a large number of jobs are likely to be initiated as a positive externality of LiFE.
• Live responsibly: Through its multi-dimensional, multi-cultural and global approach, the LiFE movement can play a pivotal role in not merely reversing the effects of climate change but, at a broader level, mainstream a harmonious and mindful way of living — a staple of Indian culture and tradition, practised by its people over centuries.

India’s Status

• The annual per capita carbon footprint in the country is only about 1.5 tons, compared to the world average of 4 tons per year
• India has the fourth largest capacity for renewable energy in the world – Ranked fourth in wind energy and fifth in solar energy.
• India’s renewable energy capacity has increased by about 290 % in the last 7-8 years.
• Achieved the target of 40% of the electric capacity from non-fossil-fuel sources nine years ahead of the deadline.

Conclusion

As the world moves in fits and starts towards its shared commitment to achieve ambitious climate goals, the time is ripe for India to lead the LiFE movement and mainstream it into the climate narrative. LiFE could arguably become the very heart of that model.

Source: The Hindu

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Syllabus

• Prelims: International Relations

What are scorched earth tactics?

• A part of a military strategy which seeks to destroy anything that could be of use to the enemy, including energy supplies, bridges, provision stores, agricultural fields, road and railway links, etc.
• The strategy seeks to deplete the enemy’s resources to sustain warfare, and also break their morale by inflicting heavy hardships on combatants and non-combatants alike.
• The destruction could be carried out by the enemy, or by the retreating army of a country which does not want invaders to use its resources.
• Harming civilians as part of this strategy has been banned under the 1977 Geneva Convention.

Current Status: Over the past week, Russia has rained missiles on Ukraine’s cities, destroying civilian infrastructure, including power and water supply lines.

• As winter approaches, lack of electricity is likely to cause serious suffering – highly dependent on reliable electricity supplies and centralised heating. Any disruption to these during winter can cause pipes to burst and render high-rises uninhabitable.
• Experts have commented that the tactic is being used by Russia as on the actual battlefield, its military is experiencing setbacks.

Scorched earth policy has been part of warfare since ancient times

• With the nomad Scythians using the tactics in their war against the Persian Achaemenid Empire led by King Darius the Great (who ruled 522 BCE to 486 BCE). The nomadic herders Scythians would hide in the steppes after destroying food supplies and poisoning wells.
• During the American civil war in 1864, when Union General William Tecumseh Sherman and his soldiers burnt everything in sight as they marched through Confederate areas. The campaign, known as the March to the Sea, is estimated to have cost the South close to $100 million. Sherman’s men pillaged farms, destroyed railway tracks and factories, set fire to cotton crops, and even burnt land deeds so that plantation owners would not be able to prove ownership.
• In 1915, the Imperial Russian Army, when retreating from the Imperial German Army, destroyed anything that could serve the invaders for more than 600 miles, including crops, railway lines, and dwellings.During the Second World War, in 1941, the Russian army again destroyed telegraph networks and electrical and industrial resources when invaded by Germany.
• In India, the armies of Maratha leader Chhatrapati Shivaji were known for their scorched earth tactics. Some historians have said that while the Maratha leaders looted and burnt enemy towns, they were under orders to not harm civilians or desecrate religious sites.

News Source: The Indian Express

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Syllabus

• Prelims: Agriculture, Indian Economy

In News: Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee (GEAC), which functions in the Union Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, might approve the commercial cultivation of modified mustard [DMH-11].

• A group of activists have also written to the ministry, objecting to the potential approval of “unsafe, unneeded and unwanted genetically modified organisms.”
• This would be the first time since 2002 for such approval to grow GM mustard, a genetically modified hybrid variety of the mustard species, for consumption by the masses.

Experts are fearful –

The move that could pose a threat to crop diversity, food security and increase tolerance for use of pesticides.

• Might also severely affect the agrarian sector, as the seed market will be in the hands of private companies instead of farmers.
• Indigenous crop varieties may get threatened, which are crucial to fight climate change. If these varieties are lost, it would be a huge risk when the effects of climate change are worsening and food security is threatened
• The entire biosafety assessment of GM mustard has been unscientific and no guidelines have been followed. There have been irregularities and the need for certain tests has been unreasonably questioned and ignored.
• GM mustard is a herbicide-tolerant crop, which can become hazardous to the environment. The move will also pave the way for pesticide and insecticide-tolerant companies
• Genetic modifications can have irreversible damage to the environment

Conclusion

The modification technology is comparatively new and we do not know how it will reflect in the long term. It may open gates for unwanted or unknown diseases and how it will manifest in an open field is not assessed or analysed. Even scientists cannot predict this without its execution. In such a situation, agriculture will go beyond the control of farmers and scientists. Therefore, India must prepare to pick up its battles thoughtfully.

Source: Down to Earth

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Syllabus

• Prelims – Environment
• Mains – GS 3 (Environment)

Context: Recently, the prices of natural gas, crude oil, and coal have all hit new highs in the international market due to disruption because of the Ukraine-Russia War, rising demand after COVID-19, and bad weather.

• Coal prices breached the $200 per short tonne mark in the USA.
• China is going to add 300 million tonnes of coal mining capacity.
• European coal imports have surged more than 35per percent this year.
• At the IMF-World Bank meeting, the Finance Minister of India indicated the necessity to go back to coal.

About Clean Energy:

• Clean energy is energy that comes from renewable, zero-emission sources that do not pollute the atmosphere when used. For example, Solar Energy, Wind Energy, Nuclear Energy, etc.
• India has overachieved its commitment made at COP 21- Paris Summit by already meeting 40% of its power capacity from non-fossil fuels- almost nine years ahead of its commitment.

Why is it Important?

• These are environmentally friendly since there is no negative impact on the environment by the use of clean energy.
• Clean energy reduces the risk of environmental disasters, such as fuel spills, etc.
• It helps to create reliable power supplies to enhance energy security.

Recent Global Trends:

China:

• China, the world’s biggest coal-based power generator, has a deep economic interest in thermal energy, particularly coal-based plants.
• It is also the biggest producer and exporter of thermal power plant equipment.
• Chinese banks have financed about 70 percent of the new coal-based plants globally.

European Countries:

• Most EU nations have reopened mothballed coal-based power plants and ramped up output.
• It is forecasted that Germany will become the world’s third-biggest importer of coal after China and India.

In India:

• Because of intermittency issues with solar and wind power, India’s large renewable capacity addition will not be matched by the consumption of renewable-based power.
• India plans to increase its coal-based power generating capacity by 25 percent by 2030.
• Increasing energy consumption is a development imperative for India because-
• Increased energy consumption is not only a prerequisite for overall growth but also human development.
• India has a low per capita energy consumption ( India ranks 104 out of 140 countries)

Coal Sector at a glance:

• Coal is the largest single source of energy-related CO2 emissions.
• China and India together consume double the amount of coal as the rest of the world combined.
• In India, the Coal sector was nationalized in 1972 in two phases.
• Coal blocks are allocated on the basis of the auction.
• Bituminous type of coal is mostly found in India.
• It is mainly found in the provinces of Jharkhand, Orissa, West Bengal, Chhattisgarh, and Madhya Pradesh.

About Coal:Coal is a sedimentary deposit composed predominantly of carbon that is readily combustible.

• It is formed from plant remains that have been compacted, hardened, chemically altered, and metamorphosed by heat and pressure over geologic time.
• Coal is the most widely available and cheapest energy source.

Types of Coal

Anthracite:

• It is also known as “hard coal”.
• It contains the highest amount of carbon out of all coal ranks (86%-97%).
• It is used mostly in industrial settings and the metals industry due to its high heat value.

Bituminous:

• It is also called “soft coal”.
• It has a slightly lower carbon content than anthracite (45%-86%).
• It is used for both electricity and steel production.
• Subbituminous:It has lower carbon content than bituminous coal (35%-45%).It is primarily used for electricity generation

Lignite:

• It is known as “brown coal”.
• It has the lowest carbon content out of all the coal ranks (25%-35%).
• It has high moisture content and a crumbly texture.
• It is mainly used in electricity generation

Consumption of Coal by Country:

China:

• China is the largest consumer of coal, and has comprised more than half of global consumption since 2011, with this share growing year upon year.

India:

• India Consumes about 11% of coal globally.
• Coal is the most important and abundant fossil fuel in India.
• It accounts for 55% of the country’s energy needs.

The United States:

• In 2021, about 546 million short tons (MMst) of coal were consumed in the United States mainly in the power generation sector.

Way Forward:

• In case of big economic countries , the approach of taking care of requirements first, and worrying about the planet later needs to be rationalized to achieve the commitment made under Paris Agreements.
• There is a need for urgent attention to work towards achieving a clean energy-oriented economy.
• The deployment of carbon capture, utilization, and storage (CCUS) technologies needs to be prioritized.

The future of clean energy looks bright, with recent years showing that more renewable energy capacity has been installed globally than new fossil fuel and nuclear capacity combined.

Source:   The Hindu

Previous Year Question

Q.1)Consider the following statements:

1. Coal ash contains arsenic, lead and mercury.
2. Coal-fired power plants release sulphur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen into the environment.
3. High ash content is observed in Indian coal.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (2020)

1. 1 only
2. 2 and 3 only
3. 3 only
4. 1, 2 and 3

Q.2) In the context of proposals to the use of hydrogen-enriched CNG (H-CNG) as fuel for buses in public transport, consider the following statements:

1. The main advantage of the use of HCNG is the elimination of carbon monoxide emissions
2. H-CNG as fuel reduces carbon dioxide and hydrocarbon emissions
3. Hydrogen up to one-fifth by volume can be blended with CNG as fuel for buses
4. H-CNG makes the fuel less expensive than CNG

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

1. 1 only
2. 2 and 3 only
3. 4 only
4. 1, 2, 3 and 4

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Syllabus

• Mains – GS 2 (Governance)

Context: Recently, the Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI) conducted a pan-India operation, “Megh Chakra”, against the online circulation and sharing of Child Sexual Abusive Material (CSAM).Similarly, in 2021, the CBI launched “Operation Carbon”.

Child Pornography in India

• In India, though viewing adult pornography in private is not an offence; seeking, browsing, downloading or exchanging child pornography is an offence punishable under the IT Act.
• As the public reporting of circulation of online CSAM is very low and there is no system of automatic electronic monitoring, India’s enforcement agencies are largely dependent on foreign agencies for the requisite information.

Government of India’s Initiatives:

• In Shreya Singhal (2015), SC read down Section 79(3)(b) of the IT Act to mean that the Internet Service Provider (ISP), only upon receiving actual knowledge of the court order or on being notified by the appropriate government, shall remove or disable access to illegal contents.
• Thus, ISPs are exempted from the liability of any third-party information.
• In the Kamlesh Vaswani (2013) case, the petitioner sought a complete ban on pornography. In pursuance to this, nine (domain) URLs were disabled which hosted contents in violation of the morality and decency clause of Article 19(2) of the Constitution.
• India’s first online reporting portal (2016): It was launched by ‘Aarambh India’ (a Mumbai-based NGO), in partnership with the IWF.
• Aim: To report images and videos of child abuse.
• National cybercrime reporting portal (2018): It was launched by the Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) for filing online complaints pertaining to child pornography and rape-gang rape.
• In 2019, the National Crime Records Bureau (MHA) signed a MoU with the NCMEC to receive CyberTipline reports to facilitate action against those who upload or share CSAM in India.
• According to a report of the International Centre for Missing and Exploited Children on “Child Sexual Abusive Material: Model Legislation & Global Review”, more than 30 countries now require mandatory reporting of CSAM by ISPs. Surprisingly, India also figures in this list, though, the law does not provide for such mandatory reporting.

Tackling of CSAM worldwide:

• In American: A programme called CyberTipline is operated for public and electronic service providers (ESPs) to report instances of suspected child sexual exploitation.
• In the UK: The Internet Watch Foundation (IWF), a non-profit organisation, ensures a safe online environment for users with a particular focus on CSAM, includes disrupting the availability of CSAM and deleting such content hosted in the U.K.
• INHOPE: It is a global network of 50 hotlines (46 member countries).
• It provides secure IT infrastructure, ICCAM (I- “See” (c)-Child-Abuse-Material) hosted by Interpol, and facilitates the exchange of CSAM reports between hotlines and law enforcement agencies.
• ICCAM: A tool to facilitate image/video hashing/fingerprinting and reduce the number of duplicate investigations.

Way Forward:

• Recommendations of the ad hoc Committee of the Rajya Sabha (2020)
• On legislative front: Widening of the definition of ‘child pornography’ but also proactive monitoring, mandatory reporting and taking down or blocking CSAM by ISPs.
• On technical front: Permit the break of end-to-end encryption,
• Build partnership with industry to develop tools using artificial intelligence for dark-web investigations
• Track identity of users engaged in crypto currency transactions to purchase child pornography online
• Liaisoning with financial service companies to prevent online payments for purchasing child pornography
• The Optional Protocol to the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child encourages state parties to establish liability of legal persons.
• The Council of Europe’s Convention on Cybercrime and Convention on The Protection of Children against Sexual Exploitation and Sexual Abuse also requires member states to address the issue of corporate liability.
• It is time India joins INHOPE and establishes its hotline to utilise Interpol’s secure IT infrastructure or collaborate with ISPs and financial companies by establishing an independent facility such as the IWF or NCMEC.

Source: The Hindu

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Syllabus

• Mains – GS 2 (Governance)

Context: RecentlyThe government of Chief Minister restored general consent to the Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI) to investigate cases in Maharashtra while reversing the decision of the state’s previous led Maha Vikas Aghadi (MVA) government. CBI will no longer require the permission of the state government to open investigations in the state.

Jurisdiction of CBI vis-a-vis State Police:

• Law and Order is a state subject and the basic jurisdiction to investigate crime lies with State Police. Besides, due to limited resources, CBI would not be able to investigate crimes of all kind.

Jurisdiction of CBI:

• Cases which are essentially against Central Govt. employees or concerning affairs of the Central Govt.
• Cases in which the financial interests of the Central Government are involved.
• Cases relating to the breaches of Central Laws with the enforcement of which the Government of India is mainly concerned.
• Big cases of fraud, cheating, embezzlement and the like relating to companies in which large funds are involved and similar other cases when committed by organized gangs or professional criminals having ramifications in several States.
• Cases having interstate and international ramifications and involving several official agencies where, from all angles, it is considered necessary that a single investigating agency should be incharge of the investigation.

If CBI can investigate then what is General Consent?

• As the CBI is governed by the Delhi Special Police Establishment Act that makes consent of a state government mandatory for conducting investigation in that state.
• There are two kinds of consentin the form of case-specific consent and general consent.

1. Case-specific consent–Given that the CBI has jurisdiction only over central government departments and employees, it can investigate a case involving state government employees or a violent crime in a given state only after that state government gives its consent.
2. “General consent” is normally given to help the CBI seamlessly conduct its investigation into cases of corruption against central government employees in the concerned state. Almost all states have given such consent. Otherwise, the CBI would require consent in every case.

​​​​​​​​​​​​​​Therefore, Withdrawal of general consent means that to probe any case in these states, CBI would have to take prior permission from the state government

Note: As per the Section 6 of The DSPE Act (“Consent of State Government to exercise of powers and jurisdiction”) says: “Nothing contained in section 5 (“Extension of powers and jurisdiction of special police establishment to other areas”) shall be deemed to enable any member of the Delhi Special Police Establishment to exercise powers and jurisdiction in any area in a State, not being a Union territory or railway area, without the consent of the Government of that State.”

Which states have withdrawn general consent?

Currently, eight states have withdrawn consent to the CBI: Punjab, Rajasthan, West Bengal, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Kerala, Mizoram and Meghalaya . All except Mizoram and Meghalaya are ruled by the opposition.

Can withdrawal mean that the CBI can no longer probe any case?

• The CBI would still have the power to investigate old cases registered when general consent existed.
• Also, cases registered anywhere else in the country, but involving people stationed in states which have withdrawn consent, would allow CBI’s jurisdiction to extend to these states.
• If High courts or the Supreme court rules that there is a need for CBI investigation, then it is deemed that the consent of state government is there and thus central government notifies.

Recent, Court’s ruling related to it:

• Calcutta High Court recently ruled in a case of illegal coal mining and cattle smuggling being investigated by the CBI, that the central agency cannot be stopped from probing an employee of the central government in another state. The order has been challenged in the Supreme Court.
• In Vinay Mishra vs the CBI, Calcutta HCruled in July this year that corruption cases must be treated equally across the country, and a central government employee could not be “distinguished” just because his office was located in a state that had withdrawn general consent.
• The HC also said that withdrawal of consent would apply in cases where only employees of the state government were involved.

Way Forward:

• There is need for Transparency and coordination among Centre and statesgovernment in order to carrying out the investigations which falls in the domains of CBI. In case of tussle regarding the subjects between Centre-states. should be discussed and solved through Centre-state coordinating bodies such Inter-State Council, NITI Ayog and Zonal council.
• On the other hand the misuse of central investigating agencies such as CBI , NIA and ED shouldn’t be as it is against the basic ethos of federalism and vibrant democracy.

Source: Indian Express

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Syllabus

• Mains – GS 3 (Environment)

Context: The National Commission for Scheduled Tribes (NCST) had recommended to the Union Environment and Forest Ministry to put the new Forest Conservation Rules, 2022, on hold.

What are the Forest Conservation Rules?

• The Forest Conservation Rules deal with the implementation ofthe Forest Conservation Act (FCA), 1980.
• They prescribe the procedure to be followed for forest land to be divertedfor non-forestry uses such as road construction, highway development, railway lines, and mining.
• The broad aimsof the Forest Conservation Act are to protect forests and wildlife, put brakes on State governments’ attempts to hive off forest land for commercial projects, and strive to increase the area under forests.
• Forest Advisory Committee (FAC):
  • For forest land beyond five hectares, approval for diverting land mustbe given by the Central government.
  • This is via aspecially constituted committee, called the Forest Advisory Committee (FAC).
  • This committee examines whether the user agency or those who have requested forest land, have made a convincing case for the upheaval of that specific parcel of land, whether they have a plan in place to ensure that the ensuing damage — from the felling of trees in that area, denuding the local landscape — will be minimal and the said piece of land doesn’t cause damage to wildlife habitat.
  • Once the FAC is convinced and approves(or rejects a proposal), it is forwarded to the concerned State government where the land is located, which then has to ensure that provisions of the Forest Right Act, 2006, a separate Act that protects the rights of forest dwellers and tribals over their land, are complied with.
  • The FAC approval also means that the future users of the land must provide compensatory landfor afforestation as well as pay the net present value (ranging between ₹10-15 lakh per )

What do the updated rules say?

• The latest version of the rules consolidates changes to the Act over the years from various amendments and court rulings.
• Private plantation:
  • The rules make a provision for private parties to cultivate plantations and sell them as land to companies who need to meet compensatory forestation targets.
  • This, according to the government, will help Indiaincrease forest cover as well as solve the problems of the States not finding land within their jurisdiction for compensatory purposes.
• Consent of Gram Sabha for diversion of land:
  • Prior to the updated rules,state bodies would forward documents to the FAC that would also include information on the status of whether the forest rights of locals in the area were settled.
  • After 2009, the Environment Ministry passed an order mandating that proposals would not be entertained by the FAC unless there was a letter from the State specifying that the forest rights in the place had been “settled” and the gram sabha, or the governing body in villages in the area, had given their written consent to the diversion of the forest.
  • However, therehave been a series of orders by the Environment Ministry over the years that have sought to skirt the necessity for consent from the gram sabha.
  • The new rulesformally codify this and say that a project, once approved by the FAC, will then be passed on to the State authorities who will collect the compensatory fund and land, and process it for final approval.
  • Only in passing, is it mentioned that the States will ensure“settlement” of Forest Rights Acts applicable.
  • This, many forestry experts say, doesn’t automatically imply the consent of the resident tribals and forest dwellers.

Concerns:

• Favour of Corporates:
  • Corporates and other commercial entities can now easily arm-twist tribal communities to obtain necessary consent or suppress any opposition.
  • Plantations for commercial use by private players are another threat as the locals will be deprived of the use of land primarily meant for them
• Threat to biodiversity:
  • Tribals use the revenue forest land for livelihood purposes. The new guidelines allow private players to use the land for plantation, whichcan lead to monoculture cultivation — thus affecting biodiversity.
• Relaxed clearance process:
  • Due to relaxation in the clearance process a developer does not need to take clearances at one go for diverting land use.
  • One may take approval over a part of the land to begin the work and take clearance at the final stage.
  • Such a provision would encourage illegalities and confusion and the statutory requirement of obtaining the consent of locals can be ignored.

Way Forward:

• The new forest protection regulations should be re-evaluated following constructive consultations with the key stakeholders.
• They must be adjusted to take into account the crucial importance of tribal and forest rights and the responsibility of the government to safeguard them.

Source: The Hindu

Q.1) Consider the following statements regarding Swadesh Darshan Scheme:

1. It is a centrally sponsored scheme being jointly implemented by Union Ministry of Culture and equivalent departments of state governments.
2.  The first phase of the ‘Swadesh Darshan 2’ will be started from January 2023 under which 15 states with two or three destinations each have been identified to be developed.
3.   Under the scheme, central government provides Central Financial Assistance (CFA) to State Governments/UT administrations for infrastructure development of different ‘thematic tourist circuits’ identified in the scheme.

Which of the above statements is/are correct?

1. 1 and 2 only
2. 2 and 3 only
3. 1 and 3 only
4. 1 2 and 3

Q.2) Recently, DefExpo 2022 was held in which city of India

1. Delhi
2. Hyderabad
3. Mumbai
4. Bengaluru

Q.3) United Nations Security Council Resolution 1267, is often mentioned in news is related to

1. Sanctions on North Korea
2. Israel – Palestine Issue
3. Recognizing the terrorist as global terrorist
4. Sanctions against Syria for using chemical weapon

Comment the answers to the above questions in the comment section below!!

ANSWERS FOR ’22nd October 2022 – Daily Practice MCQs’ will be updated along with tomorrow’s Daily Current Affairs.st

Q.1) –  d

Q.2) – b

Q.3) – c